Formal Informal Social Support Systems Health And Social Care Essay

Formal In full-dress companionable Support Systems Health And Social assist EssayRealising that it is the natural right that all those who labour should enjoy to the fullest extent the fruits of their labour the Colonial Government of the Gold Coast initiated a package for unrestricted service workers who went on retirement after serving in the domain service for over 30 years, passed an ordinance as part of the reforms in the colony. That ordinance came to be known as CAP 30. The following category of workers were entitled to enjoy this package, gold coast Armed Forces, Police Service, Fire Service, Ghana Education Service, Ghana Health Service, obliging Service etc. However, by 1972 the law was amended to allow some separate body, SSNIT to take responsibility of several(prenominal) category of workers contri to a greater extentoverion towards their retirement. subsequently 1972, employees of the Ghana Education Service, Ghana Health Service, and Judiciary Service amongst o thers were directly under the SSNIT aid Scheme with the exception of the Security Services. The Social Security Pension Scheme was accomplished under the PNDC Law 247 of 1991. The Scheme is administered by the Social Security and National Insurance Trust (SSNIT) to cater for Civil and Public Servants, Employees in the private sector, Professionals, Traders, Artisans, Farmers and also the self-employed. The Social Security Scheme is the only basic Social Security Scheme that insures a worker against the following contingencies Old Age, invalidness and Death.The worker modifys 5% of his/her basic salary and the employer adds 12.5% of the workers basic salary, making a total of 17.5% which is paying to SSNIT. The rate of Contribution for Self-Employed or Voluntary ratifier is 17.5% of decl bed income. It would interest you to know that Government Pension or cap 30 attracts a huge sum of m unityy than the SSNIT bounty which is relatively lower. This variety in the pension administ ration has brought about workers agitation for fairness in their retirement benefits. In the domain sector a person qualifies for full pension at the age of 60years and you must(prenominal) stick out made a minimum contribution of 240 months in aggregate but can voluntarily go on retirement at age 55years for reduced pension and must comport made a minimum contribution of 240 months. As a result of ill-health wizard qualifies for invalidity pension. In that case you must have made contributions for not less than 12months in aggregate within the last 36 months and you must have been declared permanently invalid and incapable of any normal gainful employment by a qualified and recognized medical officer and bear witness by a Regional Medical Board on which a SSNIT Medical Officer is represented.Since 1957 when the country gained independence expatriate officers in the Ghana Civil Service opted to retire and many vacancies occurred. This created the opportunity for Ghanaians who were on pension to be re-eng vulcanised in the Civil Service on contract. These officers enjoyed their pension in addition to their payment as contract officers. However, in 1968, the Government of Ghana ordered the cessation of the payment of the pension package in addition to the salaries attached to the contract appointment. This mo nettary standard obviously did not go down well with the affected pensioners who considered it a stab at the back and a breach of faith. ( Tachie-Menson, 2003).In Accra, a aggroup of pensioners moved the services of lawyers to fight their cause for them. They succeeded and thus the emergence of the Ghana Government pensionarys Association for Accra which also assumed a national locating. The dash was then opened for branches in all the constituental capitals to register members and make payment of part of their monthly dues to Accra. In Wa the pensions Association was formed in 1986 to cater for retired workers in the municipality. Pensioners under the Government Pensions Association are over six hundred as the shape keep dwindling due to death. Pensioner with the SSNIT, as at February, 2010 stood at one hundred thousand four hundred and fifty eight with a retirement rate of 0.65%.It was my doubt that well-nigh retired public service workers would live uncomfortable lives after long years of contributing meaningfully to mother Ghana as those kinds of assumptions, suggestions, and my personal experience of my healed parents that prompted me to undertake this proposal in this area.STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMThere is a general perception out there that retirement from active service in Ghana renders one jobless and with nothing to do which often leads to frustration and early death in life story if one does not plan life properly. This is attributed to the fact that people on retirement who do not plan well use their benefits to fall out shelter for themselves after which they end up nourishment on their meager monthly a llowance. It is claimed because most workers are not able to upchuck up shelter during their working lives before they go on retirement. This has been the home over the last decade and to a greater extent and has rather impoverished retirees. Such claims are not hard to find in the municipality if one visits these retired workers at their homes. consequently retired workers whose family members are not there to brave them are left to their fate or are forced to put up with neighbours. It is also worrying to find frail looking pensioners go to their banks e precise fortnight to struggle for their allowances. In some situations those incapacitated to the extent that they cannot make the journey to the bank would not have access to their money unless they prepare an authority note to be endorsed by the Association and countersigned by the Accountant Generals representative for the bank to effect payment, a surgical operation quite laborious.Calculation of retirement benefits of Go vernment Pension which was originally based on the pension constant of 1/960th of ones terminal salary multiplied by the number of years work ond in months was reviewed in 1946 by the Harragin Salary Commission to 1/600th and has since been increased to 1/480th. The amount arrived at is spilt for 25% to be paid as gratuity and the remaining 75% as pension which is spread over 20 years and is payable monthly. On the death of a pensioner what is due him/her from the remaining period out of the cardinal years is paid to his/her beneficiaries as commuted pension. (Tachie-Menson, 2003)For beneficiaries of a deceased pensioner to claim the unexpected portion of the twenty years pension there are three approaches towards that end-(a)The nomination form filed with his Department while a civil servant in which he indicated his beneficiaries is the start-off to be used as authority for disbursement. However, the nomination forms can be revised at any time that the person wishes.(b)The pa ss oning is the near authority to be used for disbursement, if it super cedes the nomination form.(c)In the absence of the two above, Letters of Administration prepared jointly by the head of the pensioners family on one side and the wife and children on the other, must be obtained from the Law Courts with which to claim the commuted pension.As the years roll by for inflation to set in adjustments are made to salaries by the grant of allowances in various forms to the basic salaries of Civil Servants. However, when allowances are added to the basic salaries to mitigate the effect of the rising cost of living, it does not ponder in the pension calculation. This prompts the Ghana Government Pensioners Association to enter into serious negotiations with the Government for pension to be increase.When the consolidated salary was introduced pensioners were left in the lurch. The Associations negotiating machinery was put to the tally with the bargaining power of the Public Services Wo rkers Union of which the Association is a Division Government then consented to the grant of 50%.Therefore to spread over the step to the fore of sociable support for the retired public sector workers in the municipality, it is important to know that the enormous concern of this essay is focused on the poor sufferance of measures on the part of local authorities and community members to provide additional offbeat resources and other complaisant interventions to support the retired.SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDYThis research would divulge an in-depth knowledge of the formal and informal sociable support systems of retired workers and to know the plight of retired workers so as to come out with remedies to assist these aged citizens. It would also contribute to prepare would- be retirees to adequately plan for their future retirement. Furthermore, before a research of this nature is meaningfully carried out in the municipality of Wa, it is imperative to have some knowledge about what the area under study is made up of.OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYThe objectives of the study are as followsSpecific objectiveA. To evaluate the enough of available formal and informal support and well-being resources to the retired persons at the community level. The investigation leave behind be directed toward the identification of social support systems that would partake the growing and changing needs of the retired.GENERAL OBJECTIVES1. To determine, in some Ghanaian communities, social support systems for elderly persons.2. To study both support providers and the beneficiaries comprehensively in order to understand how poverty and the needs of the retired are distributed, and how they are dealt with in practice.3. To determine the degree of success of formal interventions of support provision to the elderly.4. To ascertain the social pattern of relief and support, and to draw the social implications of the breathing and changing patterns so that appropriate and adequate social p olicies may be formulated.RESEARCH QUESTIONSThese specific objectives above will be framed around the following specific and general questionsHow adequate are the formal and informal social support and welfare resources of retired public sector workers?GENERAL QUESTIONS1. What are the general cultural expectations about the retired person in the community and how are these changing?2. What resources are available to them?3. To what extent do retired persons avail themselves of the community resources and at what cost?4. What factors encourage or discourage utilization of such resources?5. To what extent do the resources available complement one another to meet the needs of the retired and what needs are left unmet?6. What are the principles of reciprocality choosed in these various support arrangements in the family and the community?LITERATURE examineIn reviewing literature, the study will triangulate conceptual and theoretical frame work of the topic understudy. The operational definition of key concepts include the terms formal, informal, social support systems and public sector workers. I am interested in defining formal as the official government situation in the line of merchandise of events. Informal means private and unofficial initiative. Social support system means social interventions to the vulnerable. My construct of these concepts is similar to other concepts that are in use. However, in the pastSocial welfare fortress, in the form of insurance and assistance programmes, emerged in Europe in the 1800s in order to provide citizens with an economic sentry go net during periods of illness, economic hardship, and other shocks as discussed (Palacios Sluchynsky, 2006). Today, nearly every country has some form of social protection certain to provide economic support in times of need (International Social Security Association, 2005). Assistance comes in the form of old-age pensions, survivor benefits, family allowances or other supports. In Afri ca, the author suggests that social welfare programmes were originally developed in the 1950s and 1960s as a safety net for white workers (Dixon, 1987). Employer-based contributory pensions were the dominant model.Still today, these pensions primarily serve the wealthiest workers who live in urban areas and have secure careers in the public sector (Palacios Sluchynsky, 2006). Those who are excluded from these benefits are left to rely upon the traditional safety net of family aid, mutual support, and communal living. For example, in Kenya, the clan system has operated as a labour union world, pooling resources and providing extra support during vulnerable periods (Dixon, 1987). This informal system has eroded. However, as countries have developed and urbanized, sources of livelihoods have diversified, family sizes shrunk, and the nation aged. Moreover,throughout sub-Saharan Africa, poverty has further destabilized households, changed demographic patterns and orphaned enormous numb ers of children (UNICEF, 2006).Vulnerable populations face a social protection vacuum when both formal programmes and informal practices fail to provide the safety nets that families need to survive, even though social protection is a proven component in fighting poverty and responding to families overwhelmed by disease or other shocks (Barrientos DeJong, 2004 Bourguignon, Ferreira, Leite, 2002 Chronic Poverty Research Centre, 2005 Skoufias di Maro, 2006). Throughout Africa, social protection programmes could well be mechanisms that enable families to economically survive and help children reach their potential.The reality that social welfare shunnings in Africa exclude more people than they cover, has been kick ined (Dixon, 1987 Fultz Pieris, 1999 Taylor, 2001) and yet there are important reasons to revisit this topic. He argues that in the last decade, a growing number of countries have spread out or developed new programmes in an effort to reduce poverty as well as to inve st in human and economic development. Evidence of the growing pulsing around social protection schemes include the Livingstone Call For Action (2006) where thirteen Eastern and Southern African governments pledged to draft costed national social vary plans within two to three years. In a related situation, the African Union is driving and supporting efforts to promote the development of better social welfare systems while heads of states throughout the world, have committed to building, where needed, and supporting the social security systems that protects the aged (United Nations General Assembly, 2006).The purpose of this paper is to investigate the characteristics of existing social welfare policies in Ghana and countries throughout Africa. These policies are described and the characteristics of existing social welfare schemes are analyzed in order to facilitate dialogue on how governments, supported by the international community, can improve current welfare schemes and build n ew systems that are better aligned with the needs of vulnerable populations, in order to provide a meaningful social safety net. modeOLOGYIn order to examine the characteristics of government and employer provided social support schemes to retired workers, the research must conduct an enquiry aimed at increasing knowledge based on facts. Therefore to achieve this, a systematic method and instruments of collating and collecting selective instruction should be used since the appropriateness of these methods and instruments to a large extent determine the validity and reliability of the data.Also the sample used should be a true agency of the population as well as the instrument utilized in the research.STUDY AREAThe Wa Municipality is one of the oldest districts in the region, and the biggest of the nine districts. It is the capital townsfolk of the region. The estimated population of Wa Municipality for 2008 is 124,476 as against 105,065 in 2000, an increase of about19%. The popul ation density of the area is 38 persons per square kilometers. It has about 32 communities. Because Wa doubles as the Municipal and Regional capital, it has a high population growth rate of 4% per annum with a greater proportion of the total population of the Municipality and the Region heavy in it.Wa Municipality covers the Southwestern parts of the region. It stretches from longitude 140N to 2 45N and from latitude 9 32W to 10 20W. It covers an area of approximately 5899.30 square kilometers, which is about 32% and 2.56%of the region and the nation respectively. To the South, Southwest and Southeast, Wa Municipality shares common boundaries with Wa West/Wa East, Wa West and Wa East Districts respectively. To the north, Wa Municipality is bordered by Nadwoli District.It has more retired civil and public servants and also suitable in terms of providing sufficient sample sizes of retired persons.TARGET POPULATIONThe target population for this research is the retired civil and public sector workers in the municipality and their families. Retired civil and public sector workers are of two categories. The first category is made up of pensioners under Government Pension scheme and the second category is made up of pensioners under SSNIT Pension scheme.SAMPLEA number of samples will be drawn for the study. Unlike Census, where the entire population is covered by the study, sampling enables a researcher to study a relatively small part of the target population and yet obtain finished and detailed data that are representative of the whole at a lower cost (Sarantakos, 2005). . The first sample of respondents will be made up of community members who are 60 years and above. The second respondents will be made up of family members, kin relationship and local authorities.SAMPLING PROCEDUREA snowball sampling procedure will be used. By this method a retired public sector worker is identified within the community and interviewed. This first respondent then leads the resear cher to the next respondent who also falls with the target group. The process is continued until the required number of respondents is interviewed.CHOICE OF RESEARCH METHODConsiderable interest is shown in the choice of research methods to use in this research proposal. There is the quantitative data and method approach which often is associated with positivism, the habitual paradigm in recent times. Under this approach scientific methods can more or less readily represent and measure concepts which seek to announce and explain causal relations among key variables. However, some critics are of the view that positive(p) methods reduce the contextual meanings in the process of developing quantified measures of phenomena. Though the issue of empirical approach to research has been justified by its success in measuring quantitative research, in more recent years, scientists have been challenged to explain phenomena that book measurement and their inability to quantitatively measure some phenomena, and the dissatisfaction with which the results of measurement of other phenomena have led to an intense search for other approaches to study human phenomena.A modern approach, which came to be known as post positivism, is a recent evolution of positivism which focus has been on qualitative methods, and is modeled on positivistic methods and experimental designs (Miles and Huberman, 1993). This approach has led to the acceptance of qualitative research approach which does not need empirical data to discover knowledge. However, one cannot help but to stuck by the success of qualitative research methods in themarket place of academic ideas (Atkinson, 1995, p. 117). The tradition of using qualitative methods to study human phenomena is grounded in the social sciences. The tradition came about because aspects of human values, culture, and relationships were unable to be described fully using quantitative research methods. More recently, the practice of qualitative researc h has expanded to clinical settings because empirical approaches have proven to be of limited service in answering some of the challenges and pressing clinical questions, especially where human subjectiveness and interpretation are involved (Thorne, 1997, p. 28).However, the use of qualitative research has its own flaws as well. It is unable to study relationships between variables with the degree of accuracy that is required to establish social trends.For the purpose of this proposal a triangulation of qualitative and quantitative methodology would be used to analyse data. However qualitative method has a more flexible approach in pr ocedure to construction of research design in the sampling, data collection and processing and reporting.DATA COLLECTIONData will be collected from a variety of sources within the selected community, from families, kin, neighbours, educationists, legal and health practitioners, from neighbourhood and community associations, religious groups, welfare ag encies, specialised groups such as get by unions, from local councils and other organised groups. Further information gathered will come from retired persons themselves, from their families/kin, extra familial networks, neighbourhood, their community and from state agencies. The material gathered from these levels will be in a complementary relationship to one another in order to approximate a high degree of reliability and validity.The maven data that will be gathered include the followings(a) Community profile geographic, demographic, historical, political-social and economic conditions of the community, placed within the national context.(b) Prevailing cultural norms and the expectations concerning the retired persons and their care, conceptions about reciprocity and exchange, family and kinship relationship etc.(c) Inventory and detailed descriptions of indigenous informal support systems and of formal support systems available within the community.Another source of data colle ction will be a historical review of formal and informal support systems available in the community and local levels. At the formal level, data will include the public services and programmes instituted by the government at different levels. At the informal level, data will include information on the traditional supporting roles played by family, kin, patrons and others.Data collection will proceed by means of primary sources of data such as interviews, questionnaire, and focus group discussions. Secondary data through existing literature will be used by the researcher. In terms of priorities, it is expected that questionnaires will be constructed and pretested.INTERVIEWSThe interview is a face to face meeting between a questioner and a respondent, or an oral presentation of an opinion or attitude scale (Zikmund, 1994). Structured interview will be used for meeting the respondents. It will however be inter space with unstructured interviews when interacting with non pensioners.QUEST IONNAIRESA questionnaire is a written instrument that contains a series of questions or statements called items that attempts to collect information on a particular topic. It is useful for large scale surveys that involve collection of data from literate respondents. Questionnaire will be administered to pensioners as well.FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONAnother source of data collection will be focus group discussions. This third phase about 9-12 pensioners will be grouped for discussions about their personal experience before and after active service. The plectrum of participant will be balance in terms of sex to give it a fair representation.DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONIn arranging the information or data gathered, I will employ both quantitative and qualitative abbreviation. Data will be described and in other cases subjected to quantitative analysis regarding trends in each dimension of the topic. Correlations between aspects of the topic and a series of other variables to establi sh more detailed results will be conducted. Beyond this, the researcher is expected to explain behaviours more extensively and more accurately. Where data needs empirical analysis quantitative model will be used and where it needs description and collection and analysis occur simultaneously, qualitative model will be suitable.INTENDED BENEFITSThe Government under the Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare is seriously considering the development of a national policy for the aged. Local authorities should compliment government effort by initiating social and community activities to engage the elderly in the community as well as supplement government efforts of finding welfare resources for them. The results of this study should identify and address gaps in existing interventions.My contribution to the study is to draw to attention that every worker dreams of going on retirement one day. Therefore adequate preparations should be made for the aged who have live most of their life wo rking to develop the country so that they dont retire and still wallow in poverty.My motivation stern from the very experience of having to handle my aged parents who were once public servants and are now on retirement and in addition to relations and friends who are affected in one way or another of their aged relatives.The intention of spending time and money on this exercise is to bring about an improvement of the status quo.TIME PLANPHASE 1PHASE 2PHASE 3FROM TOFROM TOFROM TODATA GATHERINGMETHOD1 use of questions2 interviews3Focus grp Dis.June-July. Pre testDecem.-Jan. Retired workers.June-July Cap 30 Retired WorkersOct. Nov.August-September Commty. profileFeb-Mar. Families Kin. Commty mmb August Sept. SSNIT Retired WorkersOctob.- Novem. Prevailng cul. NormApril.-May edu, Leg., Health workrsANALYSISMETHODS1 QualitativeMainly descriptive analysis of data. Often collection and analysis will occur simultaneously.METHODS 2QuantitativeMainly statistical analysis of data. Correlat ion between aspects of the topic and a series of variables will be established.BUDGET.ActivityQuantity/numberFrequencyUnit CostTotal CostGHInternet BrowsingBrowsing and printing20.00Documents acquired40.00Travel expensesFuel for local movement20.00Feeding readjustmentRent for two years and foodGH 120.00240.00Printing and photo copying questionnaires15 pages 100 respondents100.00Printing80 pages 8 copies60GP384.00Binding of books8 copiesGH10.0080.00 yield TotalGH884.00

Napoleon Populist Autocrat Administrative Structure

forty winks Populist Autocrat Administrative StructureINTRODUCTION short sleep Bonaparte was born in town of Ajaccio in Corsica, an island off the southern coast of France on 15th August 17691and by then Corsica was form each(prenominal)y at a lower distinguish French rule. History non only remembers him as a brilliant military strategist and commander just also as ingenious and equal to(p) statesman, masterful administrator and law of naturegiver. snooze graduated from Ecole Militaire in Paris in 1785 and was spotlighted in Valence in Southern France afterward seven days of study in France. He came to prominence after his participation in the Siege of Toulon by forcing the British navy to evacuate the port in 1793 and after defending the National Convention from the Parisian mob he wass promoted to Rank of Commander of Army of Interior and later he on successfully light-emitting diode French Armies against Austrian in First Italian Campaign. After successful Italian 1796 a nd enchanting Egyptian 1798 Campaign his popularity, halt of military and lack of regimenal affiliations brought him to foreground of politics and he is appointed as First Consul of France following coup of 18th-19th Brumaire on 9th-10th December 17992.No sooner he takes the reins of France, he begins initiating reforms in versatile fields covering politics, gracious matters, legal problems and economic situation. Instead of taking side of whatsoever political ideology or any faction, he chose a middle course by enlisting members of entirely the factions without considering their political affiliations but taking account of their ability and talent. This became apparent when he chose members of Council of State, Legion of Honor, Prefects, ministers and various posts in military hierarchy. This policy became the cornerstone for all appointments in France at a lower place his rule.By affecting Peace of Amiens 1802 he brought brief period of peace of mind when France was not at war with any state. It was during this clip he brought about most of his reforms, changes, creations, enlargement and growth of different institutions of France. He brought an end to political upheaval of France by silencing the different factions and later on amalgamating them into his tribunal. The political agreement envisaged do him an all- forefingerful and brought about centralization of political machinery. He had embarked on the civil reforms that were to make him justifiedly famous the pacification of La Vendee, a successful fiscal reform, a better administrative frame urinate, overhauling of educational system, successfully conclusion of Concordat with pontiff and codification of laws of France3.War again broke out in 1803, first with Britain and later other continental powers joining in the foray. Britain, Austria and Russia forming the Third Coalition threatened France, whereas short sleep leading a coalition of Central German States inflicted crushing defeat s on Austria first at Ulm 20th October 18054followed by the crowning victory over Austro-Russian combine at Austerlitz 2nd December 18055. This was followed by subsequent peace with Austrians at Pressburg and Russia at Tilsit. Prussia citing the reason of violation of neutrality of Ansbach by marching French armies declared war on France subsequently but was quickly and completely crushed in Battles of Jena and Auerstadt 1806. On 16th July 18066, Confederation of Rhine was established in place of consecrated Roman Empire.In 1802, national vote was taken for the Life Consulate of pile, the go out being 3,568,000 in favour to 8,374 against7. Two historic period later Napoleon sinless his journey to autocracy on 3rd May 18048Tribunate expressed the wish that Bonaparte be proclaimed hereditary Emperor of the French. The Senate and the Legislative body force up a bill which then became an organic senates consultum. It was then submitted to the commonwealth for ratification 3,572, 000 voted yes to 2,569 nos9. Napoleon ascended the throne of France with the title of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French10. On 2nd December 180411, he was coronate in Notre Dame Cathedral in presence of Pope Pius VII. On 17th March 180512, he was crowned King of Italy.Subsequently, in France, a strict system of censorship was impose and espionage system was strengthened. Whereas other parts of Empire, namely Italy, Central Germany and Holland were field of forceed to heavy taxes and the French reforms were imposed in these states which slowly culminated in rise of nationalism and detestation of foreign rule.Freedom of Religion was ushered during this period, first by signing of Concordat with Pope 1801 which heal the breach with the Catholic Church, then by granting equal status to Protestants as well as the Jews. Legal System was overhauled, by systemiseing the laws of France which dealt with matters ranging from civil to criminal laws as well as commercial law. This was a skil lful blend of different laws present in France before beginning of French Revolution and the ideas of Revolution, where under the leading of Napoleon13, utmost importance was given to simplicity, lucidity and pragmatism. Four of the finest jurists of France of the date representing Northern Customary laws along with Southern Roman influenced laws worked to produce a codification of laws which has stood the test of time and is close up is a law of France.The end of war against Britain direc at that place in sight, Napoleon Bonaparte declared Continental Blockade against Britain which would result in complete end of trade with Europe. The Blockade will achieve its peak by 1811, when entire Europe accepted the Continental Blockade. To enforce Continental Blockade, he conquered Naples, Portugal and later Spain. Portugal and Spain have-to doe with France in long drawn out protracted Peninsular War which would continue till restoration of Bourbon Monarchy in 1815.When France was invol ved in Peninsular War, Austria forming an alliance with Britain declared war on France with hope of breaking hegemony of France in Europe. Napoleon smashed the Austrians and within a month in use(p) Vienna. It will not be until 1812 invasion of Russia that France supremacy will be disputed and at finally Napoleon will be defeated in Battle of Waterloo and later exiled to St. Helena.It was during this period, when Napoleon brought in administrative, civil and legal reforms most of which still survive in France as living testimony to the magnificence of work done during this period for France. Napoleon followed, E reallything for the French People14as his motto, and this is reflected in his brilliant conquests and practical, down to earth but still long lasting reforms which he brought in France and subsequently in the conquered territories.In long candidature, most of these reforms will form the bedrock of French political, legal and administrative structure which at that life-and -death moment of French history provided France with stable, efficient and progressive government. French masses hailed all of these reforms, and most of them are still part and parcel of French administration in modified forms.LIBERAL AUTHORITARIAN ADMINISTRATION POLITICAL COMPROMISE, FLEXIBILITY AND NATIONAL STABILITYThe centralized administrative system which has prevailed in France was the handiwork of Napoleon15. Napoleon k spic-and-span and very well understood the exhaustion and antipathy of people after a chaotic Revolution and an oppressive ancien regime. People tired and excite with bloodshed, constant change of governments, coups, political instability, extremities and constant danger of counter-revolution by royalist were longing for a stronger, efficient and stable government which would prevent decay of the system and preserve the ideals of revolution. The French during the Revolution had attacked the despotism of kings, the political inequality of many constitutions only partly free the pride of the nobility the domination, intolerance, and wealth of the priesthood, and the abuses of the feudal system, all of which were still rampant in most of Europe16. Napoleon understood the philosophy behind these ideals and hence went on to realize the goals and preserve the ideals of Revolution but only after ensuring political stability of France and safeguarding it from counter-revolution and internal strife.After a successfully taking over the administration of the France, he understood the situation of people and different factions. And rising above the factions and fashioning merit as the spirit and substance of his rule he decided to usher an era of political stability, administrative skill and economic improvement.We have done with the romance of the Revolution we must now commence its history. We must have eyes only for what is real and useable in the application of principles, and not for the speculative and hypothetical. Napoleon, at Consei l detat17Above statement gives clear picture of frame of mind of Napoleon and the people presiding with him. They understanding the sentiments of the people as well as need of hour and under the guidance of Napoleon himself went on to reorganize the government and administration.POLITICAL SYSTEMThe centralized government was divided into Consulate, Senate, Corps Legislatif and Tribunate. Title IV of the Constitution of Year VII18gave plenty of powers to Napoleon who was to be First Consul. Art 4119of Constitution gave him the power to promulgates laws, appoint and dismiss at will the members of the Council of State, the ministers, the ambassadors and other foreign agents of high rank, the officers of the army and navy, the members of the local administrations, and the commissioners of the government before the tribunals. Art. 5220gave Napoleon the power to groom the council of state which was charged with drawing up projects of law and regulations of public administration and deal with difficulties which arise in administrative matters.Executive power was vested in terce consuls, but, as first consul, it was effectively in Napoleons hands, the other two acting as advisers. Yet they had to work to a legislature. It rested on a very entangled form of indirect chooseion. Each commune voted a list of persons, numbering one-tenth of its citizens, deemed worthy to conduct public business. This list then proceeded to elect one-tenth of its number and these do up the departmental list. This in its turn elected a tenth of its members this was the national list. The choice of members was vested in a new body, the Senate. From this list first the Consulate appointed twenty-four members and these co-opted others to form a body of sixty. These sixty then drew up a list of 100 members for the Tribunate and three hundred for the Legislature. The Tribunate could discuss or propose legislation but not vote on it whereas the Legislature could vote but not discuss it, and neither chamber had a legislative initiative. That came from the executive, i.e., from Napoleon working with his Council of State. The power delivered to the executive was therefore immense, but it should not be supposed that the members of these bodies were nobodies.21A senatus consultum of August 1st flat proclaimed Napoleon Bonaparte Consul for Life22, which was then put to the people in a plebiscite. The official figures were 3,011,007 in favour and only 1,562 against23. Napoleon now gained few and additional powers, he had the power to nominate the other two consuls, could appoint his successor. The three legislative bodies lost practically all their powers, those of the Corps Legislatif release to the Senate, those of the Council of State to an official Cabal formed out of it sequence the Tribunate was forced to debate secretly in five sections, where, as Bonaparte observed, they might utter as they liked.24The victory of action over talk, of the executive over the legis lature, of the one supremely able man over the discordant and helpless many, was now complete.25With the origination of Empire, Napoleon became all powerful with other bodies now losing all the powers. But as a prudent and cautious statesman, he referred all his acts to people as plebiscite. In his own words, The appeal to the people has the double advantage of legalizing the prolongation of my power and of purifying the origin. In any other way it must of all time have appeared equivocal.26It was then submitted to the people for ratification 3,572,000 voted yes to 2,569 nos. The Corps Legislatif disappeared and the Tribunate is not heard of after 1808. The Emperor was sole ruler.27The Senate was brought firmly under the Emperors control and thereby ceased to follow as an independent body.28The Senate had the appearance but not the reality of great power.29By now France came under extremely centralized rule, which ensured till 1815 France safety from civil strife, revolt and any f orm of dissension from any of the factions present in France at that time. Also, Napoleon took only those into political posts who possessed talent and merited the post irrespective of their political affiliations. This and other measures taken by him to bring Democrats, Republicans, Jacobins and later Royalists succeeded to bring them into his fold. Also creation of Legion of Honor created a class of loyalists who stood by him till the end. Centralization of Power and creating a class of loyalists brought political stability to France at turn of century when political ideologies clashed through with(predicate)out Europe.ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM built-in Republic was divided into departments and arrondissements with each department having a Prefect, Council of Prefecture and Department General Council with Prefect enjoying absolute powers and privileges in the department while conducting day to day affairs30. Napoleon while reorganizing administration completely eliminated elective sy stem and appointing31Prefects to conduct the affairs of the Department, while sub-prefects were placed over the new arrondissements and mayors over the communes. The mayors were directly appointed by the First Consul in communes with population of over 5,000 whereas Prefects appointed the mayors for remaining communes.The administrative machinery aided in watch overing control over different areas of the Empire, along with providing administration which was miss for a long period of time in France. Indeed, so little was there of effective self-government that France seems to have sighed with relief when order was imposed by Bonaparte in the person of a Prefect.32The Prefect was primarily the political agent of the government.33Vigorous censorship which was imposed in whole of France along with a complex but effective network of spies under the charge of Fouche prevented political opponents a ground to protest whereby maintaining political stability. The country was honeycombed wi th spies and informers and watched over by a vigilant and efficient police.34Napoleon working with Cambaceres brought about the authoritarian structure in place and later in the days of Empire it was Cambaceres who worked meticulously while dealing with administrative matters. Napoleon took up the tasks of regular tax payments, law and order, education, military supply, regulation of grain trade, censorship and host of public projects which included tasks of various types from beautification of Paris with which Napoleon attached outpouring importance to construction of roads to connect all the cities of France with Paris and later their enlargement and maintenance.All of this was done and achieved and efficiency was insured by maintaining a network of spies, enactment of strict penal code 1810 and Napoleon always giving precedence to merit over all other considerations while making appointments.The administrative structure which though has undergone many changes but has still survi ved in its essence till date in France. tallyitarianism IN DAILY LIFEEDUCATION AND righteousnessNapoleon embarked on the civil reforms that were to make him justly famous, which all had authoritarian structure in place so as to allow Napoleon to adjust them to his wishes. This is very well observed in relation to his Education Policy and Religious Policy. Law of II Floreal35which dealt with Education Policy to followed in France was passed on 1st May 1802, whereas Concordat and subsequent organic legislations which dealt with spiritual question were made in first years of his rule, which though provided general people with education and religious freedom hitherto unknown but gave Napoleon a supreme position over them and sidestep them to his gain. His prime aim while enacting Law of II Floreal was to bring education to common public and use it as a propaganda to improve his image and maintain control over France. Breach with religion and later persecution of religion during Revo lutionary years had brought much unease passim France, especially rural populace who were still devout, hence he decided not only to allow religion and tolerate different faiths in France but also to heal the breach with Papacy. This was achieved through Concordat and organic legislations passed by him over course of his reign.EDUCATION IN FRANCEI want a teaching body, because such a body never dies, but transmits its organization and spirit. I want a body whose teaching is far above the fads of the moment, goes straight on even when the government is asleep, and whose administration and statutes deform so national that one can never lightly resolve to meddle with them. Napoleon36Educational System in France went under complete change. Schools run by Church which were prime source of education during ancien regime and which were closed down during Revolution were not substituted by an equal structure which led to unmeasurable situation of education in France.Napoleon desiring to bring an end to the abysmal situation and using it as a tool to achieve his end of making the future generations of France loyal to the state and him brought about an overhaul. The new educational policy aimed at creating a new loyal group of people and to fashion them as able breadwinners, obedient citizens and enthusiastic soldiers37.Elementary schools were left to the control and supervision of the communes and of the sub-prefects38. The law of II Floreal, however, aimed at improving the supplemental education39, which the Convention had assay to give in its ecoles centrales. These were now reconstituted either as ecoles secondaires or as lycees. The former were local or even private institutions intended for the most bright pupils of the commune or group of communes while the lyces, far fewer in number, were controlled directly by the authorities. In both of these schools great prominence was given to the demand and applied sciences.The training was of an almost military t ype, the pupils being regularly drilled, while the lessons began and ended with the roll of drums. The numbers of the lycees and of their pupils rapidly increased but the progress of the secondary and primary schools, which could boast no such attractions, was very slow. In 1806 only 25,000 children were attending the public primary schools.40But two years later elementary and advanced instruction received a notable impetus from the establishment of the University of France41. The new University of France was admirably suited to his purpose. It was not a local university it was the sum total of all the public pg.297 teaching bodies of the French Empire, arranged and drilled in one vast instructional array. Elementary schools, secondary schools, lycees, as well as the more advanced colleges, all were absorbed in and controlled by this great teaching corporation, which was to inculcate the precepts of the Catholic religion, fidelity to the Emperor and to his Government42, as guarante es for the wellbeing of the people and the unity of France. For educational purposes, France was now divided into seventeen Academies43, which formed the local centres of the new institution. Thus, from Paris and sixteen provincial Academies, instruction was strictly create and controlled and within a short time of its institution (March, 1808), instruction of all kinds, including that of the elementary schools, showed some advance.In realm of exact and applied sciences, splendid discoveries were made and it prospered. But literature and poetry took a back seat primarily because of lack of support and secondly because of rigorous censorship.In the end it served the purpose of Emperor, created a class of loyalists and exact and applied science made a long strides and France was to remain the hub of scientific studies for another half a century.CONTROL OVER RELIGIONNapoleon in order to decrease the uneasiness among the population took steps to reconcile Papacy, Protestants and even Jews later. He intended to use religion to gain support of the people as well as wield and attach them to his rule.On 15th July 1801, he signed Concordat with Pope in which French Government acknowledge that the Catholic apostolic and Roman religion was the religion of the great majority of the French people. It was to be freely and publicly practiced in France, subject to the police regulations that the Government judged necessary for the public tranquility. A new division of archbishoprics and bishoprics was now made, which gave in all sixty sees to France. Napoleon enjoyed the right of nomination to them, whereupon the Pope bestowed the canonical investiture. The archbishops and bishops were all to take an oath of fidelity to the constitution. The bishops nominated the lower clerics provided that they were acceptable to the Government all alike bound themselves to watch over political interests. The stability of France was further assured by a clause granting complete and perma nent security to the holders of the confiscated Church lands a healing and salutary compromise which restored peace to every village and soothed the qualms of many a troubled conscience. On its side, the State undertook to furnish suitable stipends to the clergy.44Napoleon made several laws under the plea of statute law for the police of public worship. The organic articles forbade the application of Papal bulls, or of the decree of foreign synods, to France, they further forbade the French bishops to assemble in council or synod without the permission of the Government and this was also required for a bishop to leave his diocese, even if he were summoned to Rome.The regulation of the Protestant cult in France was a far less arduous task, Napoleon recognized two chief Protestant bodies in France, Calvinists and Lutherans, allowing them to choose their own pastors and to regulate their affairs in consistories. The pastors were to be salaried by the State, but in return the Governme nt not only reserved its approval of every appointment, but required the Protestant bodies to have no relations whatever with any foreign Power or authority.45In the years 1806-08 the position of Jews was likewise defined, at least for all those who recognized France as their country, performed all civic duties, and recognized all the laws of the State. In consideration of their paying full taxes and performing military service, they received official protection and their rabbis governmental support.46Napoleon succeeded to bring the different religious institutions under government control and even controlling and regulating their affairs, so as to prevent them from rising up against the government and at the same time making people content.REFORM OF JUDICIAL SYSTEMI will go down to history with the Code in my hand. Napoleon47Law for shakeup of Judicial System48was passed on 18th March 1800 making judiciary a simple hierarchy of courts. At lowermost level, i.e., for every commune t here was a Tribunal of First Instance which was presided over by Justice of Peace which dealt with civil as well as correctional police matters.49every department had a Criminal Tribunal which had jurisdiction over all the criminal and correctional police matters in the department.50Twenty-nine Tribunals of appeal were established throughout France to hear civil and commercial matter from Tribunal of First Instance.51Tribunal of Cassation sat in Paris which was the final court where appeal could be made from Criminal Tribunal or Tribunal of Appeal which was composed of forty-eight judges.52A single code for France was the dream of King Louis XI in the 15th century, of Dumoulin (1500-66) and Brisson in the sixteenth, of Colbert and Lamoignin in the seventeenth, and of DAguesseau in the eighteenth. The four last named made substantial contributions toward such a project Brisson, by his compilation of the ordinances in force under Henry III, Colbert and Lamoignon, through a more cele brated ordinances bearing the name of Louis XIV, and DAguesseau, whose ordinances on wills, gifts, and entails appeared between 1731 and 1747, and were through codifications.53Before the outbreak of Revolution, Voltaire had tersely commented on law and order situation of France, stating Man did not often change his horse, as many as he changed law while travelling through France, which correctly gave the picture of law and order situation before Revolution. The parlements, being upholders of local customary laws proved another obstacle towards codification of law. During the Revolution, revolutionaries made many attempts to codify the laws to bring uniformity throughout France, but failed and when Napoleon took power, banditry was on rise and law and order situation had deteriorated. Napoleon with an aim to bring stability gave prime importance to reorganizing the judicial system and codifying the laws. The draft

Strategies to Test for Rheumatic Heart Disease

Strategies to Test for Rheumatic Heart DiseaseRheumatic heart infirmity remains a major human race health chore in m any(prenominal) parts of the world. While the incidence and prevalence of ARF and RHD have been decreasing in substantial countries since the early twentieth century, they bide to be major causes of morbidity and mortality among young people in developing nations. It is estimated that there are more than 15 million cases of RHD worldwide, with 282,000 new cases and 233,000 deaths annually1.Globally, India contributes about 25%-50% of newly diagnosed cases, deaths, hospitalizations and burden of RHD.The earliest reporting of RHD was done in 1910. Even during the 1980s, hospital admission data suggested that RF and RHD accounted for nearly one-half to triplet of the total cardiac admissions at various teaching hospitals all over India. A more recent survey across various tertiary portion out hospitals found that hospital admission rates of RHD had declined (5%-26 % of cardiac admissions). Population-based epidemiological data to ascertain the prevalence of RHD and their impact on community in India are lacking. A properly planned population study in 1993 reported a prevalence of 0.09% for RHD.Most of the epidemiological studies are school-based surveys. The reported prevalence of RHD varied from 1.8 to 11/ 1000 schoolchildren (average 6/1000) during the 1970s and 1980s, and 1-3.9/1000 during the 1990s.Studies using bandcardiographic validation of clinical diagnoses show a much start prevalence of RHD. The surveys conducted by the Indian Council of medical examination Research (ICMR) also indicate a decline in the prevalence of RHD over decades.The epidemiology of rheumatic heart disease in India is of special interest as it may help to understand the effects of economic transition on this particular enigmatic disease. Critical appraisal of the published literature suggests the possibility of a real decline in the occurrence of the disease in some parts of the country, but a continuing onslaught in several otherwise regions. The rate of decline seems to correlate more with improved public health facilities than with economic growth alone. However, the cumulative burden of the disease remains high, and sustained efforts for the bar of rheumatic heart disease needs special attention 2.Rheumatic fever is the most normal cause of mitral stenosis. Other less common etiologies of impedimenta to left-hand(a) atrial out operate include congenital mitral valve stenosis, , mitral annular calcification with extension onto the tracts, cor triatriatum, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, left atrial myxoma, and pathogenic endocarditis with large vegetations. Pure or predominant MS occurs in approximately 40% of all patients with rheumatic heart disease and a past fib of rheumatic fever. In other patients with rheumatic heart disease, lesser degrees of MS may accompany mitral regurgitation (MR) and aortic v alve disease. In moderate climates and developed countries, the incidence of MS has declined considerably over the past few decades due to reductions in the incidence of acute rheumatic fever. However, it remains a major problem in developing nations, especially in tropical and semitropical climates3.In normal cardiac physiology, the mitral valve opens during left ventricular diastole, to allow blood to flow from the left atrium to the left ventricle. This flow direction will be maintained as long as the pressure in the left ventricle is lower than the pressure in the left atrium and the blood flows down the pressure gradient. Mitral stenosis (MS) is a mechanical obstruction during blood flow from the left atrium to the left ventricle. Obstruction happens due to thickening and immobility of the leaflets, thickening and unification of the chorda tendinae or mitral annular and commissural calcification4.In rheumatic MS, the valve leaflets are diffusely thickened by fibrous tissue and /or calcific deposits. The mitral commissures fuse, the chordae tendineae fuse and shorten, the valvular cusps become rigid, and these changes, in turn, lead to narrowing at the apex of the funnel-shaped (fish-mouth) valve. Although the initial wound to the mitral valve is rheumatic, the later changes may be a nonspecific process resulting from trauma to the valve ca apply by altered flow patterns due to the initial deformity. Calcification of the stenotic mitral valve immobilizes the leaflets and narrows the porta further. Thrombus formation and arterial embolization may arise from the calcific valve itself, but in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF), thrombi arise more frequently from the dilated left atrium (LA), particularly from inwardly the left atrial appendage.In normal adults, the knowledge base of the mitral valve orifice is 4-6 cm2. In the presence of probatory obstruction, i.e., when the orifice area is reduced to To asscess the hardship of obstruction hemodynami cally, both the transvalvular pressure gradient and the flow rate must be measured. The latter depends not only on the CO but also on the heart rate. Increase in heart rate causes shortening of diastole proportionately more than systole and diminishes the time available for flow across the mitral valve. Therefore, at any given level of CO, tachycardia, including that associated with rapid AF, augments the transvalvular pressure gradient and elevates further the LA pressure. The LV diastolic pressure and ejection fraction (EF) are normal in isolated MS.In MS and sinus rhythm, the elevated LA and PA wedge pressures exhibit a prominent atrial contraction pattern (a wave) and a gradual pressure decline after the v wave and mitral valve opening (y descent). In sedate MS and whenever pulmonary vascular resistance is importantly increased, the pulmonary arterial pressure (PAP) is elevated at rest and rises further during exercise, often causing secondary elevations of right ventricular (R V) end-diastolic pressure and volume.In temperate climates, the latent period between the initial attack of rheumatic carditis and the development of symptoms due to MS is generally about two decades most patients begin to jazz disability in the fourth decade of life. Studies carried out before the development of mitral valvotomy revealed that once a patient with MS became seriously symptomatic, the disease progressed continuously to death within 2-5 years.In patients whose mitral orifices are large enough to accommodate a normal blood flow with only low elevations of LA pressure, marked elevations of this pressure leading to dyspnea and cough may be precipitated by sudden changes in the heart rate, volume status, or CO, as, for example, with excitement, severe exertion, fever, severe anemia, paroxysmal AF and other tachycardias, sexual intercourse, pregnancy, and thyrotoxicosis. As MS progresses, lesser degrees of stress precipitate dyspnea, the patient becomes limited in daily a ctivities, and orthopnea and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea develop. The development of permanent AF often marks a turning point in the patients course and is generally associated with acceleration of the rate at which symptoms progress. haemoptysis results from rupture of pulmonary-bronchial venous connections secondary to pulmonary venous hypertension. It occurs most frequently in patients who have elevated LA pressures without markedly elevated pulmonary vascular resistances and is rarely fatal. Recurrent pulmonary emboli, sometimes with infarction, are an important cause of morbidity and mortality rates late in the course of MS. Pulmonary infections, i.e., bronchitis, bronchopneumonia, and lobar pneumonia, commonly complicate untreated MS, especially during the winter months3.Mitral valve judicial decision with echocardiography should include the pattern of valve involvement and calcification, severity of stenosis, associated mitral regurgitation and other co-existent valve lesio ns and atrial chamber dilatation and function. Mitral stenosis can be assessed in parasternal, top(prenominal) or subcostal views. As with any stenotic valve the main diagnostic vaunt in the parasternal long axis view. As in rheumatic MS, the anterior mitral leaflet (AMVL) shows diastolic doming or hockey-stick shape and the posterior mitral leaflet (PMVL) has restricted motion or is totally immobile. This doming is due to the reduced mobility of the valve tips compared to the base of the leaflets. Echocardiography can also adequately assess the Subvalvular apparatus changes such as thickening, shortening, fusion of chordal calcification. Color Doppler in this view with diastolic turbulence across the mitral valve confirms the diagnosis. On the other hand, Parasternal short axis view of the mitral valve is used for assessing the leaflets thickening, fusion and calcification of commissures. The parasternal short axis view is also used to assess the mitral valve orifice area by plan imetry of the mitral leaflets at the level of tips. The pastime are different means of measurements by echocardiography to ascess the severity of MS. Planimetry of mitral valve at the level of the leaflets tips is done in parasternal short axis view. This method is a precise familiar technique by 2D echocardiography but the same method can also be used in 3D echocardiography en-face view of mitral valve. However, newly developed QLAB software in 3D echo is now available for calculation of mitral valve orifice area which requires further validation. Calculation of mitral valve area (MVA) by pressure half-time (P1/2t) should be done in an apical four chamber view using continuous wave. Doppler Pressure half-time method is not valid immediately after percutaneous balloon mitral the Doppler curve. The gradient can be measured by tracing the intemperate outline of mitral diastolic inflow and the mean pressure gradient is automatically calculated. The severity can be assessed as mild (10) 4.Both soft and quantitative evaluation of valvular heart disease can be improved by 3D echocardiography. Any level and paraplane analysis of a stenotic valve allows an accurate planimetry of the smallest orifice area. Zamorano et al demonstrated that 3DTTE is a feasible, accurate and highly reproducible technique for assessing the mitral valve area in patients with rheumatic MV stenosis. In a square(a) series of 80 patients, MV area was assessed by conventional echo Doppler methods and by 3DTTE, and results were compared with those obtained invasively.Compared with all other echo-Doppler methods, 3DTTE had the best agreement with the invasively determined MV area, and intra- and inter-observer unevenness of the method was very good. Zamorano et al also studied 29 patients undergoing percutaneous balloon mitral valvuloplasty. 3DTTE had the best agreement with the invasively determined MV area, particularly in the immediate post procedural period therefore, the method could b e proposed as an ideal one throughout this procedure and could make invasive evaluation excess in this setting. As part of these very important quantitative data, 3DTTE can be integrated with 2D evaluation in the qualitative morphology assessment of the MV. Commissures, leaflets, annulus calcifications and subvalvular structures can be visualized from different and unique planes facilitating the understanding of this complex apparatus. Vegetations, commissural diseases, subvalvular pathologies (tip of the leaflets/chordae/papillary muscles), clefts can be accurately diagnosed.So assessment of the severity of mitral valve stenosis requires accurate measurements of the Mitral valve orifice area (MVA). Direct measurement of the MVA can be performed by planimetry using two-dimensional echocardiography (2-D echo). Mitral valve area determined by planimetry reflects the anatomic orifice area and is largely independent of hemodynamic variables, left ventricular compliance and concomitant valvular disease. However, planimetry by 2-D echo requires significant experience and operator skill to define the correct image plane that displays the true mitral valve orifice. In addition, planimetry requires a parasternal short axis view of the mitral valve and is therefore limited to patients with favorable image quality from a parasternal window. To bypass the difficulty of a parasternal short axis view, Doppler traces of the diastolic transmitral flow is obtained from a four-chamber apical view and the mitral valve area is estimated using the pressure half-time (PHT). However PHT is influenced by hemodynamic variables, left ventricular compliance and concomitant valvular disease.Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography (3-D echo) is a novel imaging technique that is expected to enhance the ability to perform planimetry of the mitral valve. 3D echo utilizes a matrix array echo probe to scan a pyramidal volume in real time. A precise cross-section of mitral valve orifice a t the tips of the leaflets with correct plane orientation may provide more accurate assessment of MS severity than two-dimensional echocardiography. Thus it can eliminate one of the principle limitations of 2DE in determining MVA by planimetry. There is less inter- and intra-observer variation also during MVA calculation. Therefore, real-time 3D echo can be used as a applicative and accurate method for planimetry of mitral valve areas.This study will be performed to evaluate the feasibility, reproducibility and accuracy of 3-D echo for the assessment of MVA over conventional 2D planimetry Doppler PHT methods.

Macbeth Essay :: essays research papers

MacbethA Comparison of the characters Macbeth and Lady MacbethThe play Macbeth, written by the playwright William Shakespeare, has two primary(prenominal) characters, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. Macbeth is a general of Duncans army, and Lady Macbeth is his wife. Each of these two characters have different personalities and traits, however they are married to each other and bug out to be in love. Macbeth depression appeared in the play in (i.ii). He is a Scottish general fighting under Duncans rule. He is portrayed as a valiant soldier and a powerful man with honor and allegiance to his country. Duncan, the king of Scotland, also gave him the title of the Thane of Cawdor, which is a high honor.However, as the play proceeds, the reader becomes aware that Macbeth has some other personality traits as well. When Macbeth first meets with the three witches, and they tell him their prediction of him adequate a future king, the first characteristics that the reader learns now coincide wit h some new ones, self-doubt, and the realization that others can easily influence Macbeth.Lady Macbeth first comes across to us as an shame person. When the reader first comes into contact with Lady Macbeth (i.v), she receives a letter telling her about the witches prophecy of Macbeth becoming king she immediately begins to plan Duncans murder. She believes that by making Macbeth kill Duncan, she would be able to get closer to the throne of Scotland, which then would give her an immense power. Lady Macbeth appears to be driven by the desire for power throughout the first two scenes of the play, and also comes across with tons of power over her husband.When Macbeth first speaks to Lady Macbeth about the prediction that the three witches had of him becoming king, she encourages him to kill Duncan. Macbeth, on the other hand, is nervous about the consequences and the repercussions of committing murder, and almost decides not to do it. Lady Macbeth then proceeds to almost make fun of Macbeth by questioning his purpose as a man.

N. Scott Momadays House Made of Dawn Essay -- Momaday House Made Dawn

N. Scott Momadays House Made of Dawn House Made of Dawn, the novel that began the American INDIAN LITERARY RENAISSANCE, is Scott Momadays masterpiece. He originally conceived the work as a series of poems, but under the tutelage of Wallace Stegner at Stanford, Momaday reconceived the work first as a set of stories, then as a novel. House is the story of Abel, an Indian from the Pueblo Momaday calls Walatowa, a fictionalized version of Jemez Pueblo in New Mexico, where Momaday grew up. Abel returns from World War II a victim of what we would call today post-traumatic stress syndrome. He is unable to speak, even to his grandfather, Francisco, who raised him.Abel, who is drunk when his grandfather picks him up on the return to the reservation, is found in part on a veteran that Momaday knew at Jemez, but also in part on Ira Hayes, the Pima Marine who raised the signal flag at Mt. Suribachi, and was memorialized in the statue that became the symbol of the Marine Corps. Hayes couldnt a djust to civilian life, and died drunk in a ditch on the reservation.The Indian veteran who is a hero in war but cannot find a niche in civilian life when he returns to America has become an archetype. Abels name (Momaday only if gives him one) suggests the biblical victim, and many readers assume the Cain who lays him low to be white society. But readers should remember that in the Bible Cain is Abels brother, and the characters in House Made of Dative who courtship Abel the most harm are indeed his fellow Indians. Furthermore, Abels troubles begin even before his stint in the army. He is illegitimate, and as a result has eternally been an outsider at Walatowa. The war exacerbates his problems, but they started at his birth.Abels first t... ...se of hendiadys, simple clauses linked with and The feasting had begun, and there was a lull on the town. Faulkners crop can be seen in the stream of consciousness passages and the use of the bear as a symbol of the wilderness.But Momada ys novel is distinctly Indian as well. Cherokee novelist and critic Louis OWENS says What has matured with Momaday is not merely an undeniable facility with the techniques and tropes of modernism, but more significantly the profound awareness of conflicting epistemologies Euro-American and Indian. . Momadays novel represents more to the full than any Native American novel before it the assertion of a different perspective (92). Works CitedMomaday, N. Scott. House Made of Dawn. New York Harper, 1968.Owens, Lewis. Other Destinies catch the American Indian Novel. Norman, OK U Oklahoma P, 1994.

Gender Diversity: Using Information Technology in Today’s Classroom. E

Gender Diversity Using Information Technology in Todays Classroom.What happens when your education is different from mine? When does that invisible line attract erased When youths, adolescents or adults, male or female encounter the aforementioned(prenominal) unique education being taught with nothing being held adventure just because of gender. In todays society, teachers and students are connected by using information technology to help expand their knowledge on the theme of gender diversity in the classroom. Gender diversity is not an issue in the United States that just gets swept under the carpet, its greater than that, its something that has become a worldwide concern affecting the ways in which students are educated in most schools. Issues of diversity are not new. In fact, contracting communities are faced with this topic a little too regular, meaning its time for change (Sunderland, 2002). As the reader of this document you volition discover the true definition o f gender diversity, how it has affected students in numerous ways, what techniques have become greatly appreciated when reaching teachers and students inside of the classroom curriculum, unlike approaches toward change, a complete understanding of digital divide, a shine of hope and dedication, while striving for a new day. Gender differences in ways of acquirement have been described by researchers observing children as young as three (Tannen, 1990). When children are young they tend to fight and argue about the same play item. Amazingly, today whether the fighting and arguing is about toys, friends, etc. its more about computers and the ways in which people learn relating to gender differences. either day in our society, there is given a dominant role to which peop... ...ealth Journal. instructors College Record, 105 (2), 1-21.Risman, B (2003). Gender & Society Valuing all flavors of feminist sociology. Sociology, 17, 659-663.Schank, R. (2003, November). FUTURE PERSPE CTIVE- A Vision of Education for the 21st Century. Retrieved November 9, 2003, from http//www.thejournal.com/magazine/vault/A2598.cfm Sunderland, J. (2000). New Understandings of Gender and Language Classroom Research Texts, Teacher Talk and Student Talk. Language Teacher Research Journal, 4, 149-173.Tannen, Deborah. (1990). You Just Dont Understand Women and Men Conversation. New York Ballantine Books. Babbie, E. (1999). The Basics of Social Research. California Wadsworths. This book was an overall review of research performed in the past and present by both women and men about the success and downfall of diversity in education.

Catcher In The Rye :: essays research papers

CATCHER IN THE RYE     The book, Catcher in the Rye, has been steeped in arguing since it was banned in America after its first publication. John Lennons assassin Mark Chapman, asked the former Beatle to sign a copy of the book early in the morning of the day he murdered Lennon. Police found the book in his possession upon apprehending the psychologically disturbed Chapman. However, the book itself contains nothing that s shoot down have lead Chapman to act as he did. It could have been just any book that he was reading the day he decided to kill John Lennon and as a result, it was the Catcher in the Rye, a book describing a nervous breakdown, that caused the media to speculate widely about the possible connection. This gave the book correct more recognition. The character Holden Caulfield ponders the thoughts of death, accuses ordinary people of being phonies, and expresses his love for his sister through out the novel. So what is the book Catcher in the Rye real about?      Superficially the story of a young man getting expelled from another school, the Catcher in the Rye is, in fact, a perceptive tuition of one individuals understanding of his human condition. Holden Caulfield, a teenager growing up in 1950s, New York, has been expelled from school for poor achievement once again. In an attempt to deal with this he leaves school a few days prior to the end of term, and goes to New York to take a vacation in the lead returning to his parents inevitable irritation. Told as a monologue, the book describe Holdens thoughts and activities over these few days, during which he describes a developing nervous breakdown. This was evident by his bouts of unexplained depression, impetuous spending and generally odd, erratic behavior, prior to his eventual nervous collapse.     Some critics have argued that Holdens character is erratic and unreliable, as he has many of the middle-class values that he cla ims to reject. Later on critics began to have praised the twisted humor of the main character. These critics have commented that the structure of the novel helps you understand Holdens unstable state of mind. Alastair best remarked "There is a hard, almost classical structure underneath Holdens rambling narrativ. The style, too, appears effortless yet one wonders how lots labor went into those artfully rough-hewn sentences" (qtd. in Davis 318)     A large field of critics took a positive view of the novel.