Exile in the Odyssey Essay

In antiquity, the civilized world was settled around the Mediterranean Basin – the foundations of Western society can be traced to Hellenic Greece, which bordered the Aegean Sea. For the Greeks, the sea was the realm of the gods. In The Odyssey by Homer, Odysseus and he crew face many trials and tribulations that isolate and ameliorate them to teach the reader that the consequences of temptation must be conquered with absolute perseverance. When Odysseus and his crew arrive on the island of the Lotus-eaters, every man eats the Lotus fruit and is tempted to remain exiled on the isle in a deep sleep forever; it is only that after Odysseus removes his crew that they are able to continue on their journey. By being on an uncharted region of the earth, Odysseus felt that he and his crew were very alienated. If Odysseus had not expelled his crew, this apathetic temptation, which was induced by the fruit, would have bound his sailors to remain exiled on this lethargic island. This exile alienates the sailors because it convinces them that this island, not Ithaca, is where they truly belong. Because the voyage was brought upon our Ithacan by divine beings, the will of Odysseus must be as headstrong as the gods’ and he must observe circumstances with immortal clarity. By realizing the temptation to remain idle, Odysseus was able to save his crew so that they could make it back to Mycenae. By working hard to prove to his seamen that it is necessary to depart from the island of the lotophagi, Odysseus exemplifies perseverance of the greatest degree as a way to conquer temptation. Upon leaving the detestable island of Lotus, Odysseus himself uses his wit and determination to accept and surpass his temptation of listening to the fatal song of the sirens while proceeding to live. As the ten-year-long exile continues, Odysseus passes by the island of the beautiful female race that is called â€Å"the sirens† by humans. The song of the sirens is said to lure sailors to sail their ships directly into the rocky coast of their island. Unfortunately, being exiled causes Odysseus to strive for adrenaline rushes, thus causing him to submit to his temptation of hearing hese beautiful beings. Odysseus’s indefatigability is illustrated by his persuading of his crew to tie him to the mast of the ship and by forcing them to plug their ears with beeswax as a way to muffle to the song. While Odysseus allows himself to be taken by his temptation, all consequences of his actions are completely derailed. While still at exile at sea, Odysseus’s abilities are enriched by his cunning in this unique situation. At last, Odysseus tenacity is shown in contrast to that of his crew when his sailors are enticed by the glorious cattle of Hyperion, the titan of the sun. While on Circe’s isle, she informs Odysseus that the cattle belong to the gods and he, in turn, commands his posse to refrain from touching the sheep. Unfortunately, they disobey and Hyperion appeals to Zeus, who destroys the entire ship, sparing only Odysseus. By juxtaposing the fates of Odysseus and his men, the reader can see that temptation correlates directly to fate. This form of exile does two different things, one to each grouping that was outlined above, Odysseus or the crew. While considering that the crew was mercilessly murdered, it is evident that they are alienated from life. Odysseus, on the other hand, is enriched by this experience because it solidifies his belief that pertinacity is the only way to combat tantalization. Throughout the adventures and misadventures of Odysseus, the reader is taught that exile can both enrich and alienate he who is alienated. All the while, exile can act as solid evidence that the consequences of temptation can only be obliterated with iron-willed perseverance.

AIDS Medicine

In a world where everything seems to have an equivalent price, doing some treatment to alleviate the sufferings from AIDS becomes only a dream for most victims. Because of the high costs of medical instruments and medications for the treatment of the disease, not all people are getting the most appropriate resolution for their health problems. In light of technological advancements in the field of health care, too many people are still on the verge of suffering because of the impact of commercialism to the industry lead by the capitalists’ point of view. The argument presented by President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa was the most significant intuition if the world population would really want to arrive at a solution for the problem induced by AIDS. No one else in the world knows better than Mbeki about the sufferings of his countrymen, not because of AIDS but because of a more dreaded situational problem-the cost of the AIDS treatment. Seriously enough, medical products for the treatment of the said disease are very steep for an ordinary person to avail. It is sometimes very ironic that with the availability of the modernized science, there are still very wide gaps which reflect the kind of living different people has. The scope of the problem about AIDS becomes very little compared to the scope of the problems induced by monopolized character of the capitalists. Giving more reasonable prices for AIDS medicines can always be maintained as long as the capitalist sectors will cooperate. Unfortunately, the world is not used to playing at its chances especially when it comes to money. People can sacrifice their ethical and moral responsibility just for the sake of saving even the tiniest penny for profit. Because of such scenario, it was a good opportunity that Mbeki greatly encouraged the international community to stand by what is considered to be of greater ethical goal-to deliver the right medical product and services at costs affordable to the general public. In his deliberations about the process, he was able to signify how each little steps of reform can arrive at a significant resolution. He was very clear on his opinion that making the medicines available at much cheaper prices will bring the worth of scientific knowledge to better perspectives. In such a case, his outlined procedures can be a very effective tool to combat the monopolistic attitude of the investing world. First, it was a very good suggestion to encourage the greater population to step up a call for a cheaper price for all medical products for AIDS. This will at least give a consensus that capitalists are no longer reliable sectors in the aspect of world economic order. Second, Mbeki’s suggestion to let government’s fund or at least subsidize the expenses for research and development is one very good approach to allocate the international capital for an appropriate cause. Thirdly, his call for international unity about setting a particular organized department is one big positive idea. This way, nations will be able to effectively monitor whatever the current market trends will be in terms of medical pricing. Moreover, each of the world states will gain access to a wide number of alternatives to acquire cheaper medicines for their respective populations. Human knowledge is a wonderful gift that should only be used for the betterment of all people concerned. But with high prices of medications for AIDS, this ethical notion may just be compromised especially if people under the poverty line would not be able to avail cheaper medicine products for the disease.

Macro and Microeconimics, FDI Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Macro and Microeconimics, FDI - Essay Example During the same time the world economy was confronted with severe economic crises, especially in the South East Asian countries and Latin America. Thus’ emerged the various criticisms regarding FDIs in developing and emerging nations. However, there have been concrete evidences about the positive effects of FDIs in countries like Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. New data from these countries suggest that FDIs have been successful in bringing about benefits to both the host economies as well as the workers in the foreign owned organizations. Africa, has been failing to exploit the advantage of foreign capital in way of not attracting FDIs Also one cannot ignore the fact that FDIs have been increasing worldwide and especially in the developing nations and that these countries have demonstrated greater growth in GDP since then. However, on the contrary the growth rate of developed nations have been comparatively lower than the developing nations abiding by the economic theory that cap ita accumulation is essential for the development of nations. The various reasons behind the contribution of FDIs in moving the developing economies towards growth would be discussed in this project. This is done by the provision of supporting evidence for the sane. Also in the present economic climate the pros and cons of implementing FDI barriers have also been analyzed in the project. Flow of global FDI in the developing and developed nations The recent economic crisis drew a lot of FDIs in the developing and emerging economies across the world. However, the impacts of FDIs have been different for different countries and regions and sectors. The economic crisis majorly affected the developed nations in the world and the FDI flows into the regions have also suffered a setback due to the sluggish market prospects. However, FDI flows into the developing nations continued to grow since 2008. But the rate had come down since the previous years as well. Researchers have put for the arg ument for this decline as an outcome of drawback of both the resource seeking and efficiency FDI aimed at being exported to the developed nations which were then going through a depression and the market seeking FDIs which aimed at serving the local markets have receded (UNCTAD, 2009, p.2). Since 1980 and 2000, the world has witnessed tremendous increase in FDI flows in various sectors and regions. According to recent statistics provided by the UNCTAD, the inward stock of FDI in the world was $0.8 trillion in 1990 while the figures were $1.95 trillion and $6.15 trillion in the years 1990 and 2000 respectively. Traditionally FDI was considered to be a phenomenon which was primarily associated with the highly developed economies of the world. Developed nations have always attracted highest shares of the foreign FDIs as compared to the developing nations. However, recently this tradition has undergone change. In recent years FDI flows in the developing nations have been greater than th e economically advanced nations. The average annual inflow of FDI in the developing countries was eight times more than the years between 1982 and 1987, and the years between 1994 and 1999. Consequently the developing countries attracted almost one-third of the entire flow of FDI in the worl

Organizational Cultural Audit and Gap Analysis Essay - 1

Organizational Cultural Audit and Gap Analysis - Essay Example On the other hand, internal and external factors within the Corporation have had a significant role to play in the development and economic prosperity of McDonald Corporation. Some of the macro-environment factors that affect the performance of McDonald include legal policy frameworks enacted by the relevant authority. In this respect, the success of the organization will be influenced by these legal policies and regulations enacted to regulate and control the operations of an organization. Legal policies are aimed at monitoring the operation of the organization and ensuring that the organization complies with the taxation policy other than other business regulatory frameworks. Internally, the operations of McDonald is influenced by its ability to have full control over the internal affairs such as managing the cultural diversity, ethical considerations, resource management, and serving the interests of the stakeholders. Stakeholders are the engine of the corporation therefore, there needs and demands must be met by the organization in order for the organization to succeed. Although these demands are very diverse, all the leading stakeholders have a role to play in the corporation, an indication that their specifications must be met however conflicting these needs may be. Stakeholders and the Business Organization In this global era of the 21st century, business organizations sector has undergone a transformation in order to breakthrough because of the stiff nature of competition brought about by globalization and economic liberalization. Globalization and free trade has opened up boundaries for international trade and exchange of good and services. Besides, the concept of free trade and globalization is important for growth and development of industries through mobility of essential factors of production including labor and capital (Spitzer, 2012). Through the global economic liberalization, the quality of good and services produces in the economy has signific antly improved in order to increase the competitiveness of these products. However, the success of an organization heavily depend on how the resources at the disposal of the organization and managed. Not only the management that are at the helm of the success but all the stakeholders to the organization. The stakeholders of an organization that have a role to play in the organization include managers, customers and consumers, owners, and the community (Carroll, & Buchholtz, 2010). Therefore, the varied difference in the demands and expectation of these groups must be fulfilled by the organization. This is because all the stakeholders of the organization have a role to play for the success of the organization. Besides, all the stakeholders of a firm must draw benefits from the organization for pledging their loyalty and service. For instance, shareholders and firm owners benefits from their investment into the organization through wealth maximization, while customers are paid for loy alty through quality and affordable products. Therefore, the success of the business organization depends on the ability of the organization to satisfactorily meet the needs and expectation of the key stakeholders. Corporate Social Responsibility The future of an organization goes beyond the capacity of the organization to meet the demands of its stakeholders with direct involvement

Aspects of Policing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Aspects of Policing - Research Paper Example Democracy and Disorder Beginning in the civil war era, our nation experienced one of the most deadly riots on American shores known as the "anti-draft riots," which rocked New York City shortly after the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. While the estimates vary, most historians agree that about 100 soldiers and civilians, many of whom were African Americans who were targeted as the reason Lincoln was fighting the war in the first place, were killed. Federal soldiers had to be diverted from around Washington D.C. to quell the outrage (Encyclopedia of War & American Society, 2005). The rise of organized labor near the turn of the century meant that organized police forces were even more important than ever. Several state police forces had their beginnings and endings related to the use of police as strike breakers in factories and on railroad holdings. This had the adverse effect of developing resentment by legislatures in various parts of the country towards police who had been used to e nforce the power of management over unions (Johnson, 2003). During World War II, young Hispanic men whose attire was unique, fought with soldiers and sailors home on leave during the so-called "zoot suit" riots in Los Angeles, California. Servicemen who were dating the Hispanic women of Los Angeles were involved in numerous brawls with Hispanic men over the rights to courtship. The police were often accused of enforcement that was prejudicial to the Hispanic men (Wilson & Taub, 2006). The 1960s brought the "Civil Rights Movement" into American consciousness, and was anything but boring for law enforcement. Protest marches, sit-ins, and demonstrations, particularly in the South, brought National Guard troops out as well as police dogs and horses to attack passive, mostly Black Americans expressing their constitutional rights. As free speech was taken to another level at Berkeley in 1964, America watched as students crusaded while yelling four letter words (Stevens, 2002). Television and the media were beginning to play a role in the American psyche of social unrest. Images of the Harlem riot of 1964 were brought to us by virtue of television (Johnson, 2003). The images of New York cops ducking and dodging the rocks and heavy masonry being dropped on them from skyscrapers and firing their side-arms at the roofs on occasion were brought into American living rooms. Less than a year later, in August 1965, two brothers would fight with California Highway Patrol during an arrest, and the Los Angeles Police Department would get the blame for starting the Watts Riot (Johnson, 2003). Innumerable buildings shooting flames into the night sky and looters carrying televisions and appliances away from shattered businesses would be occurrences that the American public would see again and again (Johnson, 2003). Riots seemed to engulf the nation in 1967 and 1968, especially in the wake of the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King. By the late 1960s through the early 1970s, co untless protests over the Vietnam War dragged on and inflamed groups large and small (Johnson, 2003). Then on May 4th, 1970, four university students would be slain by a volley of fire from the Ohio National Guard. The effect of Kent State was considered by many media analysts as one of the most unnecessary and yet most momentous events leading up to the popular disavowal of the war in public opinion polls (Kelner and Munves,

Plant biology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Plant biology - Essay Example HGT is observed mainly between prokaryotes (single-celled organisms) like bacteria but also can be in Eukaryotes (protists, fungi, plants, animals, humans) to a lesser extent. HGT was first described by Ochiai et al. in 1959, in relation to transfer of antibiotic resistance between different bacterial species. Thereafter many scientists have studied and discussed about this phenomenon and now it is accepted that HGT is not a rare event and what is present in the biological world today is not a result of vertical gene transmission alone but also of HGT. Biological kingdom of earth can be categorized into three domains as bacteria, archea and eukaryotes. During vertical gene transmission, genetic information exchange between members of these domains is restricted to closely-related organisms with homologous DNA sequences. Therefore the ancestry of an organism could be traced back by analyzing their DNA and individuals with similar gene sequences can be grouped together to construct the evolutionary pathway. However, as HGT can transfer genes across wide phylogenetic distances, this picture become obscure. The phylogenetic tree of life (Figure 1) which present the relationship among different biological taxa is thus complicated by HGT as numerous interconnecting branches became obvious due to the presence of homologous DNA sequences in distantly-related organisms (Simonson et al.). Transfer of genes between different biological kingdoms, such as between eucaryotes and bacteria, or between bacteria and insects are some extreme cases of gene exchange between wide phylogenetic distances. An example is the presence of bacterial 'rol' genes from Agrobacterium species in tobacco (Nicotiniana) plants (Intrieri and Buiatti). Figure 1. Phylogenetic tree of life as proposed by Carl Woese In vertical gene transmission, genetic variability of a species mainly arises during meiosis by recombination of genes. According to Mendal’s law of inheritance, alleles of different genes assort independently during gamete formation and thereby produce novel gene combinations which in turn generate variability. Mutations, which are the random changes of gene sequence of a DNA strand, are considered as an error in the vertical gene transmission process. It can happen as a point mutation, chromosomal duplication, breaking and rearrangement of chromosomes and addition or deletion of chromosomes. When such mutant is passed down to the next generation, it is not a mutant anymore, but a variant or a novel type. The variants who survive according to Darwin’s theory of â€Å"survival of the fittest†, subsequently pass the novel characters to their offspring by sexual or asexual reproduction. HGT however, is not a mutation and is not involved in gamete formation or sexual reproduction. It moves transposable elements between distantly-related or unrelated genomes and thereby intervenes in the process of evolution by originating different cell types and cre ating variants in its own way. Two hypotheses are presented here as ‘Continual horizontal transfer hypothesis’ and ‘Early massive horizontal transfer hypothesis.’ (Jain, Rivera and Lake). According to the ‘Continual horizontal transfer hypothesis’, HGT is a continuous process during prokaryotic evolution whereas in the ‘Early massive horizontal transfer hypothesis’, a massive exchange of a few operational genes (genes involved in

Retail Marketing - John Lewis Company in the UK Essay

Retail Marketing - John Lewis Company in the UK - Essay Example Newer brands of retailing industries are also becoming more and more dependent on support activities such as online support sections, manufacturing and supply chain. The vulnerabilities posed by various facets of the retailing industry are myriad although currently the retailing industry in under great pressure due to lowered spending levels. Retailing has evolved and emerged over the years as an essential connection between the modern consumer culture and the supply chain mechanisms used to support the retailing in force. The domain of retail commodities spans all kinds of goods such as cosmetics, food products, homemade ups, textiles, draperies and the like. The size of retail outlets however depends on a number of other factors such as the consumer markets around the retail stores and outlets, the historical image of the retail outlet etc. The various retailing businesses around Great Britain have are also structured accordingly with small, medium and large retail outlets. The his tory of retailing in Great Britain has historically deep roots with large chains such as Harrods, John Lewis etc. spanning over decades. The drive to diversify and expand the domain of business activities as well as strong fiscal grounds has ensured that these historical businesses have remained strong in terms of performance. The resilience of these businesses has been evident from their dealing with large crises such as the Second World War or the economic depression of the seventies. 2. Chosen Company: John Lewis Partnership The chosen company John Lewis Partnership has also had deep historical roots as well. The company begun as a simple drapery store on Oxford Street, the historical shopping district in London but it soon emerged as a chain of stores around London. The move to obtain more stores around London went through before the First World War providing John Lewis a comprehensive retailing network. The John Lewis Partnership emerged with the novel idea of providing employe e led partnership. This idea ensured that after the death of the original owner’s son, the John Lewis Partnership was bequeathed to the employees in 1925. This trend has continued in the same spirit ever since and the John Lewis Partnership has been stewarded by a counsel of employees ever since. Over time the John Lewis partnership has diversified its business interests in order to augment its market standing. The John Lewis brand also supports other business interests such as the Waitrose supermarkets as well as the Greenbee range of products and services. In addition to the above, the John Lewis brand also provided support to the Ocando brand but it later absolved itself of any such business interests. It is evident from the facts presented above that John Lewis represents a major retailing business in the context of the United Kingdom. This contention is further strengthened by the argument that John Lewis Partnership is the third largest retailing business present within the boundaries of the United Kingdom. As mentioned before, the John Lewis Partnership is also distinct from other brands in the retailing industry due to its power sharing structure that stretches from the CEO to the person looking after the aisle in the stores around the United Kingdom. All employees of the John Lewis brand are considered partners of the company. The annual profit is also distributed amongst the partners and recent years have seen the distribution of such

Biography Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Biography Research - Essay Example Nelson Mandela, indeed brought trouble to himself but in the human kind advantage. He indeed had problems in his life but only because he was not an ordinary man, but one with ambitions and ideals and above all, he had the strength to accomplish them. The discourse was addressed before his career to develop , but this was the evidence that Nelson Mandela didn’t have any hidden purposes. Nelson Mandela was born in a special family, belonging to the Thembu group, which existed before the British conquest. It can even be said that he was born in a royal family, because his father was a member of the royal council of Thembu, and Mandela himself should have inherited this position. After his father’s death, he was adopted by the Regent, Dalyndiela, in gratitude to his father loyalty. Belonging to such an important family he was initiated in the Thembu culture, and according to its traditions at age sixteen, he attended Clarkebury Boarding Institute, and proved that he was a brilliant student, graduating Junior High in two years, instead of three years. As a young man he couldn’t stay apart from different organizations or manifestations. From this early age he demonstrated an initiative and leadership sense. Thus he was chucked from the university, after involving in a boycott against university administration. In this period he meets Oliver Tambo, a prolific lawyer, who will become a very good friend and colleague. So far Nelson Mandela followed the Regent indications and thus of his culture, but his enterprising and innovative personality didn’t allow him to bound under some rules. So, after the Regent arranged some marriages to his real son and to Mandela , they both left in Johannesburg, working in a mine, and then at a law firm. Mandela was aware of the fact that education was very important ( thing strongly sustained by him much later in his campaigns ) so he graduated from University of South Africa and then attended to the Law University

Savings and Weath in Old Age Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Savings and Weath in Old Age - Essay Example The government is responsible in setting up policies that will help individual to accumulate resources that will aid them when they reach the retirement age or old age. For this reason one finds pension policies, taxation policies, housing policies and policies that govern homes where the old can live. The economy of America depends on the saving behavior of the people. To come up with this kind of behavior, one has to look at the patterns at which people are saving or view savings. Patterns of saving reveal the economic conditions of a country. High savings mean that individuals have high disposable income thus their living standards are better (Graham et. al., 2003). The saving rates of Americans have lately decreased to 5.3% from 7.6% annually. This is because very many Americans have a problem with household debt which has been on the increase. This is because Americans are spending more money in purchasing things that are essential for their existence. There is the problem of the wealth effect where the more an individual owns the more he or she needs to pay for it. The taxation policy really discourages savings and thus when such a wealthy person gets old; they have nothing to spend because he or she spent it securing the wealth. This reduces the accumulation of wealth for usage during the old age (Graham et. al., 2003). For the past ten years, there has been a great... People can quickly acquire liquid cash easily than before. This is increasing the inflation rate thus making things become more expensive and savings reducing completely. When one spends time purchasing goods and services for the use of that particular time, then it means that they have no more cash to keep for later use or for emergencies. Thus wealth is not accumulated and its abundance is a long gone story. This is a negative impact to the people because they have nothing to sustain them when they reach old age (Paul M. et al., 1996). Since the government sets the particular policies that affect the savings behavior of the people, it has the responsibility of coming up with public policies that will increase national savings. These can only be done by making good public policies. It can first of all make contractionary monetary policies to control the circulation of liquid cash within the economy. This will reduce the amount of liquid cash that is circulating within the economy. The action will reduce inflation by making money become scarce to the people. Thus expenditure in goods and services will reduce prompting people to save more (Paul M. et al., 1996). Savings can not be done by the government alone. Americans need to balance their purchase of things to enable them to save for their future which is mostly old age. These can be done through campaigns that are being used to educate individuals against high rates of purchasing. They need to learn to purchase the most important things and leave out those that are less important (Paul M. et al., 1996). The taxation policy by the government is a complete discouragement to saving by

Aviva Case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Aviva Case study - Essay Example t model proposed by Kurt Lewin can be considered as an important change management model that can help an organisation to address problems and challenges in its decision to adopting and implementing change in business operation process. This three phase change management model consists of three stages, such as unfreeze, movement and refreeze (Neelin, 2010, p.91). These three steps have been discussed with respect to the case study of Aviva. The management of Aviva should try to adopt and implement this change management process before implementation of the newly developed strategy of job cutting across its global business operation. Unfreeze is the first and more important stage of this change management model. It is clear from the news that the management of Aviva has decided to job-cutting across globe in order to reduce the overall business operation cost. This sudden decision and implementation of this decision can affect the business process of the organization as it can demoralise several effective employees to perform effectively. Most importantly, it can create fear among each and every employee that he or she may be axed. Therefore, Unfreezing can be considered as an important stage as in this stage the managers or leaders of the organization as it is their responsibility to inform the sub-ordinates and followers within an organisation to be ready for change. Therefore, it is important for the leaders to notif y the employees of the Aviva about newly decided change process way before implementation of this strategy (Liu, 2011, p.89). Aviva is one of the leading organisations around the globe. Therefore, it is highly important to attract the attention of the global employees regarding this decided change management process so that the management of the organisation can avoid the issues, such as workplace conflicts and inadequate business output (Marcus, 2010, p.12). Movement can be considered as another important step of this model. In this step the

Religion and Well-Being Essay Example for Free

Religion and Well-Being Essay Religion can be defined as a strong belief in the supernatural power that holds the sole authority to control human destiny. It is an institution that helps to express our belief in a heavenly power. Religion is as old as the human civilization and came into existence when the human brain became superior to realize the significance of faith, and worship. Earlier humans lived in small groups, and each group recognized an icon that harmonized the ideologies of different people in the group. Rituals were an essential part of lives and were carried for natural resources icons such as moon, sun, fire, river, etc. since its beginning religion has been very beneficial for humans and it still holds an important place in the lives of people. Religion is a completely personal choice and should be left to the choice of individuals. It is unfair to force a religion on followers of some other religion through offering gifts and cash. Each religion has its own beliefs and ideologies and should be mutually respected by others in the world. Only then this world can become a better place to live. A growing number of studies convincingly demonstrate that people who are more deeply involved in religion tend to enjoy better physical and mental health than individuals who are less involved in religion (Ellison Levin, 1998; Koenig, McCullough, Larson, 2001). As this literature continues to develop, researchers have begun to tackle challenging issues that involve explaining how the salubrious effects of religion on health might arise. A number of potentially important theoretical perspectives have been devised. For example, some investigators argue that involvement in religion exerts a beneficial effect on health because it helps people cope more effectively with the deleterious effects of stress (Pargament, 1997), whereas other researchers maintain that the potentially important health-related effects arise from the sense of meaning in life that many people find through greater involvement in religion (Park, 2005). An explanation that was proposed some time ago forms the focal point of the current study. More specifically, a number of researchers have argued that people who are more involved in religion tend to have better health because they are more likely to adopt beneficial health behaviors than individuals who are less involved in religion (Levin Schiller, 1987). Subsequent research has provided support for this perspective. For example, a number of studies indicate that individuals who attend religious services often are more likely to avoid the use of tobacco and alcohol (Gillum, 2005; Strawbridge, Shema, Cohen, Kaplan, 2001). Moreover, greater involvement in religion has been associated with more frequent exercise, a better diet, better sleep quality, and the regular use of seat belts (Hill, Burdette, Ellison, Musick, 2006; Hill, Ellison, Burdette, Musick, 2007). There is also some evidence that religious individuals are more likely to engage in a range of preventive health practices, such as getting a regular mammography, having a routine cholesterol screening, and obtaining flu shots (Benjamins, 2006; Benjamins Brown, 2004; Benjamins, Trinitapoli, Ellison, 2006). Although there is broad-based empirical support for the notion that religious involvement is associated with beneficial health behaviors there is still a great deal that is not known about this relationship. One area that is in need of further development forms the focal point of the current study. More specifically, researchers have not devised well-articulated models that explain how involvement in religion promotes the practice of better health behaviors (e. g. , Benjamins et al. , 2006; Ellison et al. in press). This information is essential for the development of more effective interventions that are administered in religious institutions. As van Ryn and Heaney (1992) observe, â€Å"Clearly, application of well-defined and carefully tested theories to the program development process holds tremendous advantages for health educators in terms of coherence, effectiveness, and evaluation of interventions† (p. 328). Three potentially important mechanisms have been identified in the research that has been done so far. The first involves the notion that certain religious beliefs encourage people to take better care of their bodies. Included among these beliefs is the notion that the body is the â€Å"temple of God† (Ellison et al. , 2009) as well as the belief that better spiritual health is associated with better physical health (Benjamins et al. , 2006). Second, a number of investigators provide evidence which suggests that some people take better care of themselves if they worship in congregations that provide formal programs that are designed to promote better health behavior (Campbell et al. 2007; DeHaven, Hunter, Wilder, Walton, Berry, 2004). Third, other researchers report that people who attend church on a regular basis are more likely to adopt beneficial health behaviors because they are encouraged to do so by their fellow church members (Ellison et al. , 2009). For more than 100 years, researchers have argued that religion is an inherently social product. For example, James Mark Baldwin, an early president of the American Psychological Association, wrote in 1902: â€Å"The fact is constantly recognized that religion is a social phenomena. No man is religious by himself, nor does he choose his god, nor devise his offering, nor enjoy his blessings alone† (p. 325). Although the early theorists made invaluable contributions to the literature, they did not explore the more pragmatic implications of their insights. The current study was designed to contribute to more recent efforts by a new generation of scholars who have begun to assess health-related effects that appear to arise from deeper involvement in religion. We hope the findings from the current study and the theoretical perspective we have devised encourage further research in this field.

Single-Parent Families Essay Example for Free

Single-Parent Families Essay There has been a lot of misconception being attributed to children who are raised by single parents in regard to their development and well being. Single parent phenomenon is no longer something unheard of in our society. Such families are commonplace in our societies today. According to the United States Census Bureau, close to a third of American families are headed by a single parent. The number of single parent families was estimated to be slightly above the 12 million mark in 2000 (Ketteringham, 2007). With an increasing trend in the single parent families across the US, researchers have conducted surveys to measure the impact of such households on the child’s welfare. There have been misconceptions that single parent families are doomed in that their children are usually associated with drug abuse, being delinquent and dropping out of school among other unconventional behavioral problems. This is however untrue because when such children gets the emotional support from the single parent, they are destined to show positive results just like any other kids from normal families. This paper shall look into the evidence that denounces the misconceived myths that are associated with children from single parent households. Single parent families: Single parent households are no longer considered as unconventional in the world today. A single parent can be defined as â€Å"a parent with one or more children, who is not living with any of the children’s other parents† (Ketteringham, 2007, para 3). In the United States, the number of children from normal family set up has been decreasing each year and an estimated 22 million kids live with single parents. Women headed families account for about 80% of the single parent households though men headed single households has been increasing in the recent past. Research reveals that mothers account for 85% of custodial parents whereas the fathers take the remaining 15%. It was also found that more than half of the children under the custody of the mothers do not access to their fathers regularly after a couple of years into the break up. The 2000 census revealed that 38% of single families resulted from divorce, 35% were never married parents, separation accounted for 19%, widowhood and separation due to other commitments each accounted for 4% of single parent families in the United States (Ketteringham, 2007). Generally, female headed households are more in comparison to male headed households. There are many reasons that can explain why mothers account for a majority share of the single parent families but the main reason would be the fact that women are seen as nurturing compared to men and thus have to take the responsibilities of the young children (Lamb, 1998). Historically, the father was seen as the central figure that could provide for the children and prepare them for the future. In the years that followed after the First World War, there was a shift and mothers were seen as vital in nurturing of the young ones and hence custody of the children was handed over to them. Starting in the last third of the 20th century, the courts have been trying to adopt a middle ground at least in theory to enable men have an equal chance of having their kids in custody as the women. Reality however suggests that very few fathers have been granted custody of their children in comparison to the mothers. David Blankenhorn observes that â€Å"the United States is becoming a fatherless society, a generation ago; an American child could reasonably expect to grow up with his or her father. Today, [the same] child can reasonably expect not to,† (Blankenhorn, 1995, p1). Initially, fatherhood was regarded as of great importance in the lives of children and death of the father was the worst tragedy to happen in a child’s life. In the current times, a father leaving the home has become too common and the society seems accommodative of the habit (Blankenhorn, 1995). Challenges of single parents: Child rearing is always full of challenges and the challenges are even intensified when one parent assumes the responsibilities that are associated with parenthood. Among the major challenges facing such families is usually financial as most of them cannot afford to stay in the homes babysitting unless they have a stable financial background. For such parents, combining working and caring for the children becomes a great challenge as they have to find a person who shall be handed the responsibility of taking care of the children as they go looking for a job. Though daycares provide these services for such parents, economical constrains forces these parents to look for financially viable options in the name of extended family members or child minders (Lamb, 1998). A single parent is therefore overwhelmed by the pressure of taking care of the children and looking for financial relieve by landing a job elsewhere. They usually swing between their daily jobs and the un-paying jobs waiting at home. Handling the house chores after a tiring job during the day is a great challenge especially when the kids are still very young. With the parent tied between responsibilities at the workplace and the home, little or no time can be dedicated to spending with the children and this may lead to other challenges. Single parents hardly find time to get involved in their children’s school work and other activities. Being involved in the child’s life is crucial as a parent (Ketteringham, 2007). Instilling discipline in children is also another challenge faced by single parents as they are sometimes too overwhelmed to notice it. It is crucial to observe good parenting skills, patience, and love among other aspects associated with parenthood when the kids are young so as to grow in an upright manner. It is also important to observe that the single parents have no time for themselves as they oscillate between the work place and household chores and this has proven to be a challenge in itself for it may worsen the other challenges being faced by these parents (Garis, 1998). More often than not, single parent families are discouraged with the generalized statistics that are revealed by studies into the impacts of single-parenthood. What the researches fail to reveal is the fact that also dual parent families also comes up with challenges of their own. Though single parent family is a concept that no one will encourage, the reality of the matter requires us to think positive of such families. With the statistics revealing increasing numbers of children being raised with single parents, there is need to offer realist tools and opportunities by highlighting the positives that come from the single parent families as opposed to dwelling much on the negative statistics (Lamb,1998). Generalized Myths about children from single Parent families: Studies conducted on the issue of single parent families have continued to associate all the negative behavioral aspects in children to the family set up. In the US, the concept of family structure has continued to reveal negative statistics that are associated with the children from single-parent families. Statistics indicate that low birthrates and high death rates are prevalent in the single parent households. There is a revelation that teenagers from these families have a higher school dropout rates and lacks good health compared to their counterparts from normal families. Incidences of teenage pregnancy have been reported to be higher in such children as opposed to those from dual parent families (Garis, 1998). The negative portrayal of single parent families has continued with the depiction that such families’ children becomes depressed, emotionally stressed, and exhibits general difficulties in school. Revelation has also associated delinquency with single parenthood as statistics reveal that over 70% of teenage murderers come from single parent households and 60% of rape crimes are committed by individuals from single parent families. Studies also reveal that individuals from single parent families have higher incidences of violent behavior compared to those from dual parent families. In a nutshell, single parent families have continued to be portrayed in negative light and no one can single out any positive elements from such a family set up (Ketteringham, 2007). Nowadays, problems that are associated with single parent families are common and this may leave those affected to think that they have no control over the success of their families as it is destined to be doomed. This should not be the case as critical analysis indicates that not all the children that have been raised in single parent households are maladapted in the society. When focusing on the negative aspects of single parenthood does not help the single parents and their children in rising up to the occasion and fight the negative aspects. In fact, by portraying the negativity of the single parent households kills the self esteem of the individuals affected and only adds to worsen the situation (Garis, 1998). Demystifying the Myths: The question that we need to pose to ourselves is about the children raised by single parent families and their supposed social mal-adaptations. Such children are said to find it difficult schooling, getting into conflict with the law, and developing other social problems. It should however be noted that the problems that are usually associated with children from single parent families are more from the financial inability of the parents as opposed to single parenthood as conventionally thought. There are incidences where single parents have brought up well behaved young individuals in the society (Ketteringham, 2007). Single parent families are faced with financial problems as the financial resources are cut leaving the family in dire need of finances. The single parent is left struggling to make ends meet and this leaves no or little room to attend to the children at the same time difficulties in meeting the financial requirements of the family. Studies have indicated that single parenthood and struggling for finances always coincides (Lamb, 1998). Children from single parent families are often associated with low self esteem compared to their counterparts from dual parent families. Self esteem is very crucial especially to young children as it helps them to counter the negative peer pressure giving them confidence to face new challenges and become innovative. Showing these children some bits of love is very crucial as it helps them develop a feeling that they are appreciated by someone. It should be noted that children can only emotionally benefit from a healthy parental relationship if not so; the children are going to suffer emotional neglect from the conflicting parents (Garis, 1998). Parental involvement in the child’s life is very crucial especially during the early developmental stages in life. The children require emotional support and understanding and sharing with the children is advocated for during this stage of development. Children who get the support that they need during this stage would definitely grow into normal citizens and thus rule out the connection between single parenthood and misbehavior of the children within the society. What should be an area of concern is how to ensure that single parents gets the financial support that is very central to the shaping of the child’s future. When the single parent starts struggling to cater for the financial needs of the family, it becomes the source of all evils. This is because struggling for financial upkeep leaves the single parent with little time if any to spend with their children. However, the affluent single parents can comfortably bring up an upright family as they have enough time to spend with their children (Garis, 1998). Single Parenthood can become a success story: There are misconceptions about single parent families branding them dysfunctional and associating children from such families with social maladaptive behavior. Though they are faced with unique challenges, single parents can successfully address these challenges and provide a good background to their children. It should be noted that the love, stability and safety requirements that are needed by the children is similar irrespective of the number of parents in the household. No one would wish for separation of any sort but though children of single parents are not showered with the much needed parental love, the love cannot be compensated for by the severe and prolonged stress in the relationship between parents (Lamb, 1998). It is often advisable for parents to separate for the good of the children other than exposing the children to the tension in the relationship. Single parent families do not have a common background as some results from divorce, others from separations, whereas others result when one parent passes away. Single parenthood can be a challenge to any other person irrespective of race and/or ethnicity. Every individual is set to undergo similar grief upon losing a serious relationship. All single parents are faced with similar emotive challenges in regard to the changed status and thus needs great strength to cope up with the new status (Garis, 1998). Children from single families become emotionally vulnerable and thus single parents have the responsibility to ensure that the emotional bit has been well catered for in the family. Their top most priority should be the family as they aspire to be the best single parents like no other. This means that the interests of the child should be placed first and that a lot of sacrifices are to be made in attending to the child’s welfare. Such parents need to be supportive and observing patience to help the children in coping. They should be consistent but not highly punitive like any other parent to provide the child with options, utilize the natural and logical effects and at the same time providing structure for the kids. There is need for open communication between the child and the parent which encourages clear and open expressions to develop an honest and a trustworthy relationship (Garis, 1998). Many single parents have to redefine their situation in order to fit in the new status. They have to learn how to live within the limits of a reduced income and restructure their relationships with the kids. Developing clearly defined roles within the household can come in handy in compensation to some of the challenges faced by the single parents. A clearly defined structure for the kids to regulate meals, chores, school work and entertainment among other activities is necessary. This helps in bringing a sense of security and reducing anxiety in the children. Communication, understanding and cooperation are very important to single parents but it should be noted that these parents should not leave adult responsibilities to the children (Lamb, 1998). Conclusion: Though we cannot deny the fact that separation or rather loss of a loved one in a relationship comes with its emotional distress, it should not be misconceived to mean that the remaining family is condemned. What is important though is the fact that the single parents have to accept their new condition and manage the depression that may accompany the situation. This is very important as it prepares one to deal with challenges that come with single parenthood. Single parenthood shall remain part and parcel of our society for ever. Instead of focusing on the challenges of single parenthood, researchers need to shift and focus on how single parent families can be helped to overcome the challenges facing them. Belonging to a single parent family should not be viewed as a ticket to an unhappy family since it is evident that with appropriate intervention, success in such families is realizable. In general, parenthood can be challenging and it is even more challenging when the responsibilities are left to one parent. Reference: Blankenhorn, D. (1995). Fatherless America: confronting our most urgent social problem. BasicBooks, ISBN 0465014836, 9780465014835. Garis, D. (1998). Poverty, Single-Parent Households, and Youth At-Risk Behavior: An Empirical Study. Journal of Economic Issues; pp 1079-1085 Ketteringham, K. (2007). Single Parent Households How does it affect the Children? Retrieved on 10th May 2010 from; http://www. associatedcontent. com/article/297615/single_parent_households_how_does_it. html. Lamb, M. E. (1998). Parenting and Child Development in Nontraditional Families. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Natural product chemistry

Natural product chemistry Introduction Of Natural Product Chemistry In the beginning of organic chemistry was natural products chemistry. For a long period, up to the 1960s the structural studies of natural products served as the principle driving force for the discovery of new chemical reactivity. The introduction of spectroscopic techniques, however, removed much of the intellectual challenge involved in structure elucidation. Furthermore, natural products chemistry suffered a dramatic decline from the mid 1990s when major pharmaceutical companies disinvested in this area and switched to more rational combi-chem approaches. Nevertheless, the improvements in spectroscopic methods have historically stimulated natural products chemistry and the efforts to examine new compounds from unusual organisms rapidly and systematically. Natural products chemistry survived and began to flourish again in recent years also through chemical biology and chemical genetics and the realization that natural product structures often explore structural space unavailable t o combi-chem approaches. As a result, challenges for natural product chemists are not diminishing, they are just changing. Natural product chemistry turned to an interdisciplinary science, where the success of a chemist would only be possible in close collaboration with biologists, pharmacologists, and clinicists. Thus many novel biological activities such as beta-tubulin assembly inhibitors for example, could only have emerged from the natural products arena. Contents Of Natural Chemistry Steroids.- Terpenoids.- Fatty Lipids and Prostaglandins.- Alkaloid.- Amino Acids and Proteins.- Nucleic Acids.- Carbohydrates.- Plant and Insect Growth Regulators.- Phenolic Compounds and Natural Dyes.- Marine Natural Products.- Antibacterials.- Vitamins and Hormones. Natural product A natural product is a chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design. A natural product can be considered as such even if it can be prepared by total synthesis. These small molecules provide the source or inspiration for the majority of FDA-approved agents and continue to be one of the major sources of inspiration for drug discovery. In particular, these compounds are important in the treatment of life-threatening conditions. Natural sources Natural products may be extracted from tissues of terrestrial plants, marine organisms or microorganism fermentation broths. A crude (untreated) extract from any one of these sources typically contains novel, structurally diverse chemical compounds, which the natural environment is a rich source of. Chemical diversity in nature is based on biological and geographical diversity, so researchers travel around the world obtaining samples to analyze and evaluate in drug discovery screens or bioassays. This effort to search for natural products is known as bioprospecting. Animal sources Animals can sometimes be a source of new lead compounds. For example, a series of antibiotic peptides were extracted from the skin of the African clawed frog and a potent analgesic compound called epibatidine was obtained from the skin extracts of the Ecuadorian poison frog. Screening of natural products Pharmacognosy provides the tools to identify, select and process natural products destined for medicinal use. Usually, the natural product compound has some form of biological activity and that compound is known as the active principle such a structure can act as a lead compound (not to be confused with compounds containing the element lead). Many of todays medicines are obtained directly from a natural source. On the other hand, some medicines are developed from a lead compound originally obtained from a natural source. This means the lead compound: can be produced by total synthesis, or can be a starting point (precursor) for a semisynthetic compound, or can act as a template for a structurally different total synthetic compound. This is because most biologically active natural product compounds are secondary metabolites with very complex structures. This has an advantage in that they are extremely novel compounds but this complexity also makes many lead compounds synthesis difficult and the compound usually has to be extracted from its natural source a slow, expensive and inefficient process. As a result, there is usually an advantage in designing simpler analogues. The plant kingdom Plants have always been a rich source of lead compounds (e.g. morphine, cocaine, digitalis, quinine, tubocurarine, nicotine, and muscarine). Many of these lead compounds are useful drugs in themselves (e.g. morphine and quinine), and others have been the basis for synthetic drugs (e.g. local anaesthetics developed from cocaine). Clinically useful drugs which have been recently isolated from plants include the anticancer agent paclitaxel (Taxol) from the yew tree, and the antimalarial agent artemisinin from Artemisia annua. Plants provide a large bank of rich, complex and highly varied structures which are unlikely to be synthesized in laboratories. Furthermore, evolution has already carried out a screening process itself whereby plants are more likely to survive if they contain potent compounds which deter animals or insects from eating them. Even today, the number of plants that have been extensively studied is relatively very few and the vast majority have not been studied at all. The marine world In recent years, there has been a great interest in finding lead compounds from marine sources. Coral, sponges, fish, and marine microorganisms have a wealth of biologically potent chemicals with interesting inflammatory, antiviral, and anticancer activity. For example, curacin A is obtained from a marine cyanobacterium and shows potent antitumor activity. Other antitumor agents derived from marine sources include eleutherobin, discodermolide, bryostatins, dolostatins, and cephalostatins. The microbial world Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi have been invaluable for discovering drugs and lead compounds. These microorganisms produce a large variety of antimicrobial agents which have evolved to give their hosts an advantage over their competitors in the microbiological world. The screening of microorganisms became highly popular after the discovery of penicillin. Soil and water samples were collected from all over the world in order to study new bacterial or fungal strains, leading to an impressive arsenal of antibacterial agents such as the cephalosporins, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, rifamycins, and chloramphenicol. Although most of the drugs derived from microorganisms are used in antibacterial therapy, some microbial metabolites have provided lead compounds in other fields of medicine. For example, asperlicin isolated from Aspergillus alliaceus is a novel antagonist of a peptide hormone called cholecystokinin (CCK) which is involved in the control of appetite. CCK also acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain and is thought to be involved in panic attacks. Analogues of asperlicin may therefore have potential in treating anxiety. Other examples include the fungal metabolite lovastatin, which was the lead compound for a series of drugs that lower cholesterol levels, and another fungal metabolite called ciclosporin which is used to suppress the immune response after transplantation operations. Venoms and toxins Venoms and toxins from animals, plants, snakes, spiders, scorpions, insects, and microorganisms are extremely potent because they often have very specific interactions with a macromolecular target in the body. As a result, they have proved important tools in studying receptors, ion channels, and enzymes. Many of these toxins are polypeptides (e.g. É‘-bungarotoxin from cobras). However, non-peptide toxins such as tetrodotoxin from the puffer fish are also extremely potent. Venoms and toxins have been used as lead compounds in the development of novel drugs. For example, teprotide, a peptide isolated from the venom of the Brazilian viper, was the lead compound for the development of the antihypertensive agents cilazapril and captopril. The neurotoxins from Clostridium botulinum are responsible for serious food poisoning (botulism), but they have a clinical use as well. They can be injected into specific muscles (such as those controlling the eyelid) to prevent muscle spasm. These toxins prevent cholinergic transmission and could well prove a lead for the development of novel anticholinergic drugs. Traditional Medicine In the past, traditional peoples or ancient civilizations depended greatly on local flora and fauna for their survival. They would experiment with various berries, leaves, roots, animal parts or minerals to find out what effects they had. As a result, many crude drugs were observed by the local healer or shaman to have some medical use. Although some preparations may have been dangerous, or worked by a ceremonial or placebo effect, traditional healing systems usually had a substantial active pharmacopoeia, and in fact most western medicines up until the 1920s were developed this way. Some systems, like traditional Chinese medicine or Ayurveda were fully as sophisticated and as documented systems as western medicine, although they might use different paradigms. Many of these aqueous, ethanolic, distilled, condensed or dried extracts do indeed have a real and beneficial effect, and a study of ethnobotany can give clues as to which plants might be worth studying in more detail. Rhubarb root has been used as a purgative for many centuries. In China, it was called The General because of its galloping charge and was only used for one or two doses unless processed to reduce its purgative qualities. (Bulk laxatives would follow or be used on weaker patients according to the complex laxative protocols of the medical system.[2]) The most significant chemicals in rhubarb root are anthraquinones, which were used as the lead compounds in the design of the laxative dantron. The extensive records of Chinese medicine about response to Artemisia preparations for malaria also provided the clue to the novel antimalarial drug artemisinin. The therapeutic properties of the opium poppy (active principle morphine) were known in Ancient Egypt, were those of the Solanaceae plants in ancient Greece (active principles atropine and hyoscine). The snakeroot plant was well regarded in India (active principle reserpine), and herbalists in medieval England used extracts from the willow tree(salicin) and foxglove (active principle digitalis a mixture of compounds such as digitoxin, digitonin, digitalin). The Aztec and Mayan cultures of Mesoamerica used extracts from a variety of bushes and trees including the ipecacuanha root (active principle emetine), coca bush (active principle cocaine), and cinchona bark (active principle quinine). It can be challenging to obtain information from practitioners of traditional medicine unless a genuine long term relationship is made. Ethnobotanist Richard Schultes approached the Amazonian shamans with respect, dealing with them on their terms. He became a depswa medicine man sharing their rituals while gaining knowledge. They responded to his inquiries in kind, leading to new medicines.[3] On the other hand Cherokee herbalist David Winston recounts how his uncle, a medicine priest, would habitually give misinformation to the visiting ethnobotanists. The acupuncturists who investigated Mayan medicine recounted in Wind in the Blood had something to share with the native healers and thus were able to find information not available to anthropologists.[4] The issue of rights to medicine derived from native plants used and frequently cultivated by native healers complicates this issue. Isolation and purification If the lead compound (or active principle) is present in a mixture of other compounds from a natural source, it has to be isolated and purified. The ease with which the active principle can be isolated and purified depends much on the structure, stability, and quantity of the compound. For example, Alexander Fleming recognized the antibiotic qualities of penicillin and its remarkable non-toxic nature to humans, but he disregarded it as a clinically useful drug because he was unable to purify it. He could isolate it in aqueous solution, but whenever he tried to remove the water, the drug was destroyed. It was not until the development of new experimental procedures such as freeze drying and chromatography that the successful isolation and purification of penicillin and other natural products became feasible. Synthesis Not all natural products can be fully synthesized and many natural products have very complex structures that are too difficult and expensive to synthesize on an industrial scale. These include drugs such as penicillin, morphine, and paclitaxel (Taxol). Such compounds can only be harvested from their natural source a process which can be tedious, time consuming, and expensive, as well as being wasteful on the natural resource. For example, one yew tree would have to be cut down to extract enough paclitaxel from its bark for a single dose. Furthermore, the number of structural analogues that can be obtained from harvesting is severely limited. A further problem is that isolates often work differently than the original natural products which have synergies and may combine, say, antimicrobial compounds with compounds that stimulate various pathways of the immune system: Many higher plants contain novel metabolites with antimicrobial and antiviral properties. However, in the developed world almost all clinically used chemotherapeutics have been produced by in vitro chemical synthesis. Exceptions, like taxol and vincristine, were structurally complex metabolites that were difficult to synthesize in vitro. Many non-natural, synthetic drugs cause severe side effects that were not acceptable except as treatments of last resort for terminal diseases such as cancer. The metabolites discovered in medicinal plants may avoid the side effect of synthetic drugs, because they must accumulate within living cells. Semisynthetic procedures can sometimes get around these problems. This often involves harvesting a biosynthetic intermediate from the natural source, rather than the final (lead) compound itself. The intermediate could then be converted to the final product by conventional synthesis. This approach can have two advantages. First, the intermediate may be more easily extracted in higher yield than the final product itself. Second, it may allow the possibility of synthesizing analogues of the final product. The semisynthetic penicillins are an illustration of this approach. Another recent example is that of paclitaxel. It is manufactured by extracting 10-deacetylbaccatin III from the needles of the yew tree, then carrying out a four-stage synthesis. Use Of Natural Product Ayurveda Chinese medicine Ethnobotany Journal of Natural Products Pharmacognosy Phytotherapy Secondary metabolite During the last few decades, research into natural products has advanced tremendously thanks to contributions from the fields of chemistry, life sciences, food science and material sciences. Comparisons of natural products from microorganisms, lower eukaryotes, animals, higher plants and marine organisms are now well documented. This book provides an easy-to-read overview of natural products. It includes twelve chapters covering most of the aspects of natural products chemistry. Each chapter covers general introduction, nomenclature, occurrence, isolation, detection, structure elucidation both by degradation and spectroscopic techniques, biosynthesis, synthesis, biological activity and commercial applications, if any, of the compounds mentioned in each topic. Therefore it will be useful for students, other researchers and industry. The introduction to each chapter is brief and attempts only to supply general knowledge in the particular field. Furthermore, at the end of each chapter t here is a list of recommended books for additional study and a list of relevant questions for practice. Combined with pharmacological screening, natural products chemistry has always provided highly useful leads for drug discovery. The searches for new biologically active compounds are most often based on hints coming from ethnobotany but there are still a huge number of unstudied plants, not to speak of mushrooms, marine organisms, insects, and microorganisms. There is a wealth of molecular diversity out there, waiting to be discovered and utilized. The central issue of such type of studies, structure elucidation, although often believed to be trivial, is still a process full of adventure, discovery, and even unavoidable pitfalls. Thus structure elucidation has still much to offer, especially when combined with biological tests. Chemistry Central Journal is waiting for your results to publish. Besides the classic studies connected to pharmacological activities, new developments challenge natural products chemists, such as metabolomics, the large-scale phytochemical analysis in the functional genomics era. Metabolomic requires from a natural product chemist brilliant knowledge of modern analytical techniques and chemometry and close collaboration with biochemists and biologists. Chemical ecology, too, could not advance properly without natural product chemistry. Approximately 60% of the worlds population relies almost entirely on plants for medication. However, if phytopharmaceuticals want to be regarded as rational drugs, they need to be standardized and pharmaceutical quality must be approved. For this reason, another important task for natural products chemistry is connected to standardization: to develop proper analytical methods of quality control, to make sure that medicines obtained from natural sources are safe and of reproducible efficacy. The publication of natural product research results in an open access journal is of great importance with respect both to research activities and to effective use of natural resources, removing both price and permission barriers. It is also important to authors, giving them the opportunity to publish their results where they will be most easily accessed by those who mostly need them. Natural Product Chemistry for Drug Discovery provides a comprehensive summary of where natural product chemistry is today in drug discovery. The book covers emerging technologies and case studies and is a source of up-to-date information on the topical subject of natural products. The authors, all experts in their respective fields, provide compelling arguments as to why naturel products should be considered important tools in the drug discovery process. The book will appeal across the board from scientists to professionals, postgraduates and industrial chemists. The case studies selected for inclusion highlight recently marketed drugs and development candidates that have been derived from natural products. These real-life examples show how new technologies, such as advances in screening, isolation, dereplication and prefractionation, have significantly enhanced the discovery process. Introduction Of Synthetic Chemistry In primitive societies, even today, clothes are cleaned by beating them on rocks near a stream. Certain plants, such as soapworts, have leaves that produce sapions, chemical compounds that give a soapy lather. These were probably the first detergents people used. If you look up detergent in a dictionary it is simply defined as cleaning agent. During the last two to three decades, however, the word detergent has tended to imply synthetic detergent, or syndet for short, rather than the older soap. In fact, commercial formulations consist of a number of components, and we shall use the term surface-active agent, or its abbreviation surfactant, to describe the special active ingredients that give detergents their unusual properties. Soap, by this definition, is a surfactant. In fact, it is the oldest one and has been in use for over 4500 years. Some soap manufacture took place in Venice and Savona in the fifteenth century, and in Marseilles in the seventeenth century. By the eighteenth century, manufacture was widespread throughout Europe and North America, and by the nineteenth century the making of soap had become a major industry. As a matter of fact, soap became a detergent in 1907 when a German company put the product Persil on the market. In addition to the carboxylic acid soap, Persil contained sodium perborate, sodium silicate and sodium carbonate. Hence perborate + silicate = PERSIL. Synthetic Surfactant or Soap? You may well ask why soap, which served well for so many years, was eventually displaced. Soaps are cheap and they are manufactured from a renewable source, whereas many of the synthetic detergents are made from petrochemicals. Soaps are also biodegradable; that is, they are readily broken down by bacteria, and thus they do not pollute rivers. However, due to their gelling properties, soaps do have a greater tendency to clog sewerage reticulation systems than synthetic detergents. The grease trap of a non-sewered house was often laden with soap. But the most important reason for the displacement of soap is the fact that, when a carboxylic acid soap is used in hard water, precipitation occurs. The calcium and magnesium ions, which give hardness to the water, form insoluble salts with the fatty acid in soap and a curd-like precipitate occurs and settles, of course, on what ever is being washed. By using a large excess of soap, it is possible to redisperse the precipitate, but it is ext remely sticky and difficult to move. This problem with soap can be demonstrated by a simple experiment in which a concentrated solution of hard-water salts is added to a 0.1% solution of soap and also to a 0.1% solution of synthetic surfactant. The soap precipitates, but the synthetic surfactant remains clear because its salts are water soluble. You may live in an area where the water is extremely soft. But calcium and magnesium ions are present in the dirt that you wash out of your clothes, so that some precipitation still occurs if soap is used, and gradually deposits are built up in the fabric. There are other disadvantages with soap; it deteriorates on storage, and it lacks cleaning power when compared with the modern synthetic surfactants, which can be designed to perform specialised cleaning tasks. Finally and very importantly from a domestic laundry point of view, soap does not rinse out; it tends to leave a residue behind in the fabric that is being washed. A residue gradually builds up and causes bad odour, deterioration of the fabric and other associated problems. Whats the Difference? Whats the difference between a surfactant and soap? In general terms, the difference can be likened to the difference between cotton and nylon. On the one hand, soap and cotton are produced from natural products by a relatively small modification. On the other hand, synthetic surfactants and nylon are produced entirely in a chemical factory. Synthetic surfactants are not very new, either. Back in 1834 the first forerunner of todays synthetic surfactants was produced in the form of a sulfated castor oil, which was used in the textile industry. The development of the first detergents in an effort to overcome the reaction of soaps with hard water provides a good illustration of one of the standard chemical approaches. If a useful substance has some undesirable property, an attempt is made to prepare an analogue, a near chemical relation, which will prove more satisfactory. The petroleum industry had, as a waste product, the compound propylene, CH3-CH=CH2, which used to be burnt off. By joining four of these propylene molecules together and if benzene is attached at the double bond, the resulting compound reacts with sulphuric acid. Then sodium hydroxide is added to neutralise the sulfonic acid and a sodium salt is obtained. The new substance is closely related to an ordinary soap, and is an excellent detergent. Detergent Foam Level The relationship between foaming power and detergency has always been of interest, and foaming power has become associated in many consumers minds with high detergent power. The first liquid detergent on the Australian market was Trix. It was non-foaming, so was soon replaced because of consumer resistance. However, it is generally conceded by detergent technologists that foam height has no direct relationship to cleaning power in ordinary fabric washing systems. In systems where the amount of washing fluid is low, foam may play an important role. The individual foam films tend to take up and hold particles of soil that have been removed from the item, preventing them from being re-deposited and allowing them to be washed or scraped away. Front loading washing machines work by bashing clothes against the side of the tub the high tech version of beating clothes on rocks. Front loaders clean clothes better than top loaders, but only if a low-suds detergent is used, because the suds cushion the impact and reduce the cleaning action. Chemical Characteristics Of Synthetic Chemistry Synthetic detergents dissolve or tend to dissolve in water or other solvents. To enable them to do this, they require distinct chemical characteristics. Hydrophilic (water loving) groupings in their molecular structure, and hydrophobic (water hating) groupings, help the detergent in its â€Å"detergency† action. This detergency depends on the balance of the molecular weight of the hydrophobic to the hydrophilic portion. This is called the HLB value, and can range from 1 upwards. HLB is Hydrophilic-Lypophilic Balance. As the 0HLB value increases, the product can tend towards being a paste or solid. The lower number HLB values tend to be less water soluble, and more oil soluble. The higher the HLB the more water soluble the product. Mixtures of low and high HLB detergents produce good detergents to handle oil, fat and grease, the higher HLB detergent helps solubilise the less water soluble, low HLB detergent into an aqueous system.

Merchant & A Midsummer Nights :: English Literature Essays

Merchant & A Midsummer Nights A Product of Society? It is hard to determine whether or not Shakespearean comedy is clearly a product of Elizabethan courtly society. It can be said that the answer to that question is both yes and no. It is apparent in The Merchant of Venice that Shakespeare’s writing was strongly influenced by the society surrounding him while A Midsummer Nights Dream is much less realistic and so original that one might think he came from another time period all together. In The Merchant of Venice there are countless examples of how Shakespeare’s works were a product of society. One of the main similarities is religion. The official established state religion in Shakespeare’s time was the Church of England, lucidly Protestant. Everyone was required to attend an Anglican Service once a month. The Anglican service is also called Prayer Service, Prayer Book Service, Common Prayer, or the Lord’s Supper. Although it was not expressly illegal to be of a different religion, it was not exactly legal to practice the faith of ones choice. There were even fines for not conforming to the sanctioned religion; that is, for not going to Protestant services. (Nicoll, 76) Jewish people were quite rare in England during the Elizabethan time period and they seemed to be looked down upon the most (although it was not considered a lot better to be a Catholic). Shakespeare probably never knew a Jewish person directly, but during his time the Queen’s Jewish doctor was executed for being ‘a spy’. Also, during that time it would have been considered quite normal to force someone to convert to Christianity. Shakespeare’s Venice had the same mentality about Jewish people. Anti-Semitism was overwhelmingly abundant. Although Shylock was surely a respectable businessman, it did not seem out of the ordinary for Antonio to spit on him and call him a dog whenever it took his fancy. Shylock seems to be the only one who realizes the hypocrisy of the ‘good Christians’ and makes mention of it in his famed speech in Act III: SHYLOCK†¦ Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions; fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a Christian is? If you prick us do we not bleed? If you tickle us do we not laugh?

Character in Henry Jamess Washington Square :: Henry James Washington Square

A Question of Character in Henry James's Washington Square After reading Henry James's Washington Square, I was left a bit curious as to why James had so many static characters in his novel. Character development is a major literary device in most works, but was almost completely ignored in this book. I say almost because Catherine's demeanor seems to, even if just to the most subtle degree, drift towards an unphilanthropic attitude. Dr. Austin Sloper, his two sisters and poor Morris Townsend remain rigidly in their roles from start to finish, even throughout the span of two decades. Fortunately, the most accomplished poet T. S. Eliot, defends James on exactly this topic in his short essay, "A Prediction." "With 'character,' in the sense in which the portrayal of character is usually expected in the English novel," Eliot writes, "he had no concern" (55). He went on to add " 'character' is only one of the ways in which it is possible to grasp at reality" (55). Eliot insists that had James been better at developing characters, his writing would have suffered in other aspects (55). Fair enough, but then I was left with a question from his 'prediction'. What then is the driving point to Washington Square? Is it the plot perhaps, or the interaction of these concrete characters? Consider the complexity, or rather lack thereof, of the action and plot. The characters are introduced and Morris Townsend meets young Catherine. They court for a short while and Dr. Sloper investigates the young man's behaviors and concludes that he doesn't like him and forbids the marriage when the idea is presented to him. He and Catherine travel to Europe while Mr. Townsend visits with Lavinia, but upon Dr. Sloper's return, leaves Catherine. Finally, some twenty years later, the doctor dies leaving none of his fortune to his daughter who is visited by Mr. Townsend one last time resulting in absolutely no consequence. If somebody told me that there was a book in which two hundred pages of plot was accurately and completely summarized in one short paragraph and character development was of no concern, I would have been most certain that what they actually had read was a screenplay for a porno. Plot was obviously not one of James' major concerns with this novel, but to his credit, implements it better than Willa Cather's Death Comes for the Archbishop. Towards the end of his essay, Eliot hit upon the magic of Washington Square.

Free Essay - Roller Coaster of Emotions in Kate Chopins Story of an Hour :: Story Hour essays

A Roller Coaster of Emotions in A Story of An Hour      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the short story â€Å"A Story of An Hour† by Kate Chopin, the whole range of emotions are felt by the main charter Louise Mallard.   Upon learning of her husband's death she is immediately overcome by sadness.   However, once she is alone she allows herself to experience her feelings of joy at the prospect of being free from â€Å"repression."   She is no more able to staff off the feeling that was approaching her than trying to stop the waves from hitting the shore. Basically stated we are powerless over our feelings.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   First, one can state that no matter how hard we try we can not keep a feeling from coming over us.   Louises' feelings come from deep within her soul. Physical exhaustion followed her first storm of grief.   At first she did not know what was coming to her.   She could not even give it a name.   When she started to recognize it, she was trying to beat it back with sheer will power. Only to find that will power is no match for the total encompassing of feelings. Once she had abandoned herself the word â€Å"free† had escaped from her lips.   She did not deliberately want it but it had come anyway.   Unmistakably, a joy over took her.   Not that she would not be sad again, but for now she was like a bird let out of the cage.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mrs. Mallard was a good example of Shakespeare's line â€Å"To Thine own self be true."   She did not allow guilt to rear it's ugly head but instead just felt her feelings.   She allowed no one to witness her self assertion.   But, it was the strongest impulse of her being.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As she was projecting spring and summer days to come, a feeling that her life would be her own again gave her a contentment that she had not felt in a long time.   No one actually knew what Mrs. Mallard had experienced behind her closed door.   Although, the human heart was meant to deal with that much pain, joy and disappointment in one day never mind one hour.   To her sister (Josephine) it would appear that she died of joy when she saw her spouse was not dead.   The truth was buried with Louise.   Tragically, what seemed to be great

Designing High-Performance Jobs

Improving the performance of key people is often as simple—and as profound—as changing the resources they control and the results for which they are accountable. by Robert Simons You have a compelling product, an exciting vision, and a clear strategy for your new business. You’ve hired good people and forged relationships with critical suppliers and distributors. You’ve launched a marketing campaign targeting high-value customers. All that remains is to build an organization that can deliver on the promise. But implementation goes badly. Managers in the regional offices don’t show enough entrepreneurial spirit. They are too complacent and far too slow in responding to customers. Moreover, it’s proving very difficult to coordinate activities across units to serve large, multisite customers. Decision making is fragmented, and time to market is much longer than expected. Excessive costs are eating away at profit margins. You begin to wonder: â€Å"Have I put the wrong people in critical jobs? † But the problems are more widespread than that—in fact, they’re systemic across the organization. This tale of a great strategy derailed by poor execution is all too common. Of course, there are many possible reasons for such a failure and many people who might be to blame. But if this story reminds you of your own experience, have you considered the possibility that your organization is designed to fail? Specifically, are key jobs structured to achieve the business’s performance potential? If not, unhappy consequences are all but inevitable. In this article, I present an action-oriented framework that will show you how to design jobs for high performance. My basic point is straightforward: For your business to achieve its potential, each employee’s supply of organizational resources should equal his or her demand for them, and the same supply-and-demand balance must apply to every function, every business unit, and the entire company. Sounds simple, and it is. But only if you understand what determines this balance and how you can influence it. The Four Spans of Job Design To understand what determines whether a job is designed for high performance, you must put yourself in the shoes of your organization’s managers. To carry out his or her job, each employee has to know the answer to four basic questions: †¢ â€Å"What resources do I control to accomplish my tasks? † †¢ â€Å"What measures will be used to evaluate my performance? † †¢ â€Å"Who do I need to interact with and influence to achieve my goals? † †¢ â€Å"How much support can I expect when I reach out to others for help? † The questions correspond to what I call the four basic spans of a job: control, accountability, influence, and support. Each span can be adjusted so that it is narrow or wide or somewhere in between. I think of the adjustments as being made on sliders, like those found on music amplifiers. If you get the settings right, you can design a job in which a talented individual can successfully execute your company’s strategy. But if you get the settings wrong, it will be difficult for any employee to be effective. I’ll look at each span in detail and discuss how managers can adjust the settings. (The exhibit â€Å"The Four Spans† provides a summary. ) The Span of Control. The first span defines the range of resources—not only people but also assets and infrastructure—for which a manager is given decision rights. These are also the resources whose performance the manager is held accountable for. Executives must adjust the span of control for each key position and unit on the basis of how the company delivers value to customers. Consider Wal-Mart, which has configured its entire organization to deliver low prices. Wal-Mart’s strategy depends on standardization of store operations coupled with economies of scale in merchandising, marketing, and distribution. To ensure standardization, Wal-Mart sets the span of control for store managers at the â€Å"narrow† end of the scale. Although they nominally control their stores, Wal-Mart site managers have limited decision rights regarding hours of operation, merchandising displays, and pricing. By contrast, the span of control for managers at corporate headquarters who oversee merchandising and other core operations is set at â€Å"wide. † They are responsible for implementing best practices and consolidating operations to capture economies of scale. In addition to controlling purchasing, merchandising, and distribution, these managers even control the lighting and temperature at Wal-Mart’s 3,500 stores by remote computer. (The settings for the two jobs are compared in the exhibit â€Å"Spans of Control at Wal-Mart. †) Spans of Control at Wal-Mart (Located at the end of this rticle) Of course, the spans of control will be set very differently in companies that follow different strategies. Consider Nestle, a food company that reformulates its products in response to regional tastes for spices and sweets. In this â€Å"local value creation† configuration, the span of control for regional business managers is set very wide so that they have all the resources they need to customize products and respond to customers. Regional managers take responsibility for sales, product development, distribution, and manufacturing. As a consequence, the spans of control for managers back at the head office are relatively narrow, covering only logistics, the supply chain, global contracts, and accounting and finance. The Span of Accountability. The second span refers to the range of trade-offs affecting the measures used to evaluate a manager’s achievements. For example, a person who is accountable for head count or specific expenses in an operating budget can make few trade-offs in trying to improve the measured dimensions of performance and so has a narrow span of accountability. By contrast, a manager responsible for market share or business profit can make many trade-offs and thus has a relatively wide span of accountability. Your setting for this span is determined by the kind of behavior you want to see. To ensure compliance with detailed directives, hold managers to narrow measures. To encourage creative thinking, make them responsible for broad metrics such as market share, customer satisfaction, and return on capital employed, which allow them greater freedom. The span of control and the span of accountability are not independent. They must be considered together. The first defines the resources available to a manager; the second defines the goals the manager is expected to achieve. You might conclude, therefore, that the two spans should be equally wide or narrow. As the adage goes, authority should match responsibility. But in high-performing organizations, many people are held to broad performance measures such as brand profit and customer satisfaction, even though they do not control all the resources—manufacturing and service, for example—needed to achieve the desired results. There is a good reason for this discrepancy. By explicitly setting the span of accountability wider than the span of control, executives can force their managerial subordinates to become entrepreneurs. In fact, entrepreneurship has been defined (by Howard H. Stevenson and J. Carlos Jarillo) as â€Å"the process by which individuals—either on their own or inside organizations—pursue opportunities without regard to the resources they currently control. † What happens when employees are faced with this entrepreneurial gap? They must use their energy and creativity to figure out how to succeed without direct control of the resources they need. See the exhibit â€Å"Creating the Entrepreneurial Gap. †) Thus, managers can adjust these two spans to stimulate creativity and entrepreneurial behavior. Creating the Entrepreneurial Gap (Located at the end of this article) Of course, spans of accountability vary by level in most organizations—in general, they are wider at the top of a company and narrower at the bottom. The CEO of McDonald’s has a wide span of accountability that encompasses stock price, earnings per share, and competitive market position. A McDonald’s store manager has a much narrower span. She must focus on compliance with standard operating procedures, and she is monitored through detailed input and process measures. The Span of Influence. The third span corresponds to the width of the net that an individual needs to cast in collecting data, probing for new information, and attempting to influence the work of others. An employee with a narrow span of influence does not need to pay much attention to people outside his small area to do his job effectively. An individual with a wide span must interact extensively with, and influence, people in other units. As is the case with the other spans, senior managers can adjust the span of influence to promote desired behaviors. They can widen the span when they want to stimulate people to think outside the box to develop new ways of serving customers, increasing internal efficiencies, or adapting to changes in external markets. In many companies, widening the span of influence counteracts the rigidity of organizational structures based on boxes and silos. For example, although global companies like Procter & Gamble need to be responsive to local customers’ needs, they must also create pressure for people in different operations to look beyond their silos to consolidate operations and share best practices to lower costs. Similarly, firms such as big-box retailers that centralize merchandising and distribution to deliver low prices must ensure that they continue to monitor changing competitive dynamics. Operations managers who are insulated from the marketplace must be forced to interact with people in units that are closest to customers. In all of these cases, it’s up to senior managers to ensure that individuals work across organizational boundaries to test new ideas, share information, and learn. Executives can widen a manager’s span of influence by redesigning her job—placing her on a cross-functional team, for example, or giving her an assignment that requires her to report to two bosses. They can also adjust a job’s span of influence through the level of goals they set. Although the nature of a manager’s goals drives her span of accountability (by determining the trade-offs she can make), the level, or difficulty, drives her sphere of influence. Someone given a stretch goal will often be forced to seek out and interact with more people than someone whose goal is set at a much lower level. Finally, executives can use accounting and control systems to adjust the span of influence. For example, the span will be wider for managers who are forced to bear the burden of indirect cost allocations generated by other units, because they will attempt to influence the decisions of the units responsible for the costs. The more complex and interdependent the job, the more important a wide span of influence becomes. In fact, a wide influence span is often an indication of both the power and effectiveness of an executive. In describing eBay’s Meg Whitman, for example, A. G. Lafley, the CEO of Procter & Gamble, said, â€Å"The measure of a powerful person is that their circle of influence is greater than their circle of control. † The Span of Support. This final span refers to the amount of help an individual can expect from people in other organizational units. Again, the slider can be set anywhere from narrow to wide depending on how much commitment from others the person needs in order to implement strategy. Jobs in some organizations—particularly positions such as commission-based sales in efficient and liquid markets—do not need wide spans of support. In fact, such organizations generally operate more efficiently with narrow spans, since each job is independent and individual contributions can be calculated easily at day’s end. Traders in financial institutions, for example, need little support from their fellow traders, and their colleagues can and should stay focused on their own work (and should be compensated solely for their success in generating profit). But wide spans of support become critically important when customer loyalty is vital to strategy implementation (for example, at exclusive hotel chains) or when the organizational design is highly complex because of sophisticated technologies and a complex value chain (in aerospace or computers, for instance). In these cases, individuals throughout the company must move beyond their job descriptions to respond to requests for help from others who are attempting to satisfy customers or navigate organizational processes. Managers cannot adjust a job’s span of support in isolation. That’s because the span is largely determined by people’s sense of shared responsibilities, which in turn stems from a company’s culture and values. In many cases, therefore, all or most of a company’s jobs will have a wide span of support, or none will. But even within a given company culture, there are often circumstances in which managers need to widen the span of support separately for key business units (for example, to support a new division created to bundle and cross sell products from other units) or for key positions (for example, to facilitate the work of cross-functional task forces). There are various policies that managers can employ to widen spans of support. For example, a focus on a customer based mission typically creates a sense of shared purpose. In addition, broad-based stock ownership plans and team- and group-centered incentive programs often foster a sense of equity and belonging and encourage people to help others achieve shared goals. Firms that are characterized by wide spans of support also frown on letting top executives flaunt the trappings of privilege and generally follow a policy of promoting people internally to senior positions. The slider settings for the four spans in any job or business unit are a function of the business’s strategy and the role of that job or unit in implementing it. When you are adjusting job or unit design, the first step is to set the span of control to reflect the resources allocated to each position and unit that plays an important role in delivering customer value. This setting, like the others, is determined by how the business creates value for customers and differentiates its products and services from competitors’. Next, you can dial in different levels of entrepreneurial behavior and creative tension for specific jobs and units by widening or narrowing spans of accountability and influence. Finally, you must adjust the span of support to ensure that the job or unit will get the informal help it needs. The exhibit â€Å"Four Spans at a Software Company† displays the settings of the spans for a marketing and sales manager at a well-known company that develops and sells complex software for large corporate clients. The span of control for this job is quite narrow. As the manager stated, â€Å"To do my day-to-day job, I depend on sales, sales consulting, competency groups, alliances, technical support, corporate marketing, field marketing, and integrated marketing communications. None of these functions reports to me, and most do not even report to my group. † The span of accountability, by contrast, is wide. The manager is accountable, along with others throughout the business, for revenue growth, profit, and customer satisfaction—measures that require responsiveness and a willingness to make many trade-offs. Four Spans at a Software Company (Located at the end of this article) Note that the span of influence is set somewhat wider than the span of control. To get things done, the manager has to cross boundaries and convince people in other units (whom he cannot command) to help him. So that the manager receives the help he needs, the CEO works hard to ensure that the job’s span of support is wide. An ethos of mutual responsibilities has been created through shared goals, strong group identification, trust, and an equity component in compensation. As the manager noted, â€Å"Coordination happens because we all have customer satisfaction as our first priority. We are in constant communication, and we all are given consistent customer-satisfaction objectives. † Achieving Equilibrium At this point, you’re probably wondering how to determine whether specific jobs or business units in your organization are properly designed. Jobs vary within any business, and firms operate in different markets with unique strategies. How exactly should the spans be set in these many circumstances? After the spans have been adjusted to implement your strategy, there’s an easy way to find out whether a specific job is designed for high performance. It’s a test that can (and should) be applied to every key job, function, and unit in your business. I’ll get to the details shortly, but first, it’s important to recognize the underlying nature of the four spans. Two of the spans measure the supply of organizational resources the company provides to individuals. The span of control relates to the level of direct ontrol a person has over people, assets, and information. The span of support is its â€Å"softer† counterpart, reflecting the supply of resources in the form of help from people in the organization. The other two spans—the span of accountability (hard) and the span of influence (soft)—determine the individual’s demand for organizational resources. The level of an employee’s accountability, as defined by the compan y, directly affects the level of pressure on him to make trade-offs; that pressure in turn drives his need for organizational resources. His level of influence, as determined by the structure of his job and the broader system in which his job is embedded, also reflects the extent to which he needs resources. As I pointed out earlier, when an employee joins a multidisciplinary initiative, or works for two bosses, or gets a stretch goal, he begins reaching out across units more frequently. For any organization to operate at maximum efficiency and effectiveness, the supply of resources for each job and each unit must equal the demand. In other words, span of control plus span of support must equal span of accountability plus span of influence. You can determine whether any job in your organization is poised for sustained high performance—or is designed to fail—by applying this simple test: Using â€Å"Four Spans at a Software Company† as an example, draw two lines, one connecting span of control and span of support (the supply of resources) and the other connecting span of accountability and span of influence (the demand for resources). If these two lines intersect, forming an X, as they do in the exhibit, then demand equals supply (at least roughly) and the job is properly designed for sustained performance. If the lines do not cross, then the spans are misaligned—with predictable consequences. If resources (span of control plus span of support) are insufficient for the task at hand, strategy implementation will fail; if resources are excessive, underutilization of assets and poor economic performance can be predicted. Depending on the desired unit of analysis, this test can be applied to an individual job, a function, a business unit, and even an entire company. When Spans Are Misaligned Consider the case of a struggling high-tech company that makes medical devices. One division was rapidly losing revenue and market share to new competitors because of insufficient sales-force coverage and a lack of new-product development. In another division, created to bundle and cross sell products, managers were unable to get the collaboration they needed to provide a unified solution for a large potential customer. In a third, local managers were making decisions that did not support or build on the company’s overall direction and strategy. These situations arose because senior managers had failed to align the four spans for key jobs and for the divisions overall. In particular, the problems this company encountered reflect three common situations that can limit performance potential. The Crisis of Resources. In some cases, the supply of resources is simply inadequate for the job at hand, leading to a failure of strategy implementation. In the medical devices company, the sales staff had neither enough people to cover the competition (a narrow span of control) nor support from R&D to bring new products to market rapidly (a narrow span of support). A crisis of resources is most likely to occur when executives spend too much time thinking about control, influence, and accountability and not enough time thinking about support. They may, for instance, set the span of accountability wider than the span of control to encourage entrepreneurial behavior. And they may set the span of influence wider than the span of control to stimulate people to interact and work across units. But if the span of support is not widened to compensate for the relatively narrow span of control, people in other units will be unwilling to help when asked. Consider the local subsidiary of a regional investment bank. The managers had few direct resources (a narrow span of control) and relied on specialists from corporate headquarters to fly in to manage deals. Yet their span of accountability was relatively wide, with performance measures focusing on successful deals and revenue generation. Evaluations of the local managers failed to recognize or reward people’s commitment to help others in the organization. As a result, the span of support was too low to support the strategy of the business, which eventually failed. The Crisis of Control. Sometimes the supply of resources exceeds demand, leading to suboptimal economic performance. In highly decentralized organizations where separate business units are created to be close to customers, a crisis of control can occur when the supply of resources (the span of control plus the span of support) exceeds corporate management’s ability to effectively monitor trade-offs (the span of accountability) and to ensure coordination of knowledge sharing with other units (the span of influence). The result is uncoordinated activities across units, missed opportunities, and wasted resources. Consider a large telecommunications company in which regions were organized as independent business units. Because of rapid growth, division managers were able to create fiefdoms in which resources were plentiful. And because of the company’s success, commitment to the business mission was strong. But before long, the lack of effective performance monitoring by corporate superiors caught up with the business. The strategies of the divisions often worked at cross-purposes; there was waste and redundancy. Competitors that were more focused began overtaking the units. The Crisis of Red Tape. This can occur in any organization where powerful staff groups, overseeing key internal processes such as strategic planning and resource allocation, design performance management systems that are too complex for the organization. In such circumstances, spans of accountability and influence are very high, but resources are insufficient and misdirected. Endless time spent in staff meetings wastes resources, slows decision making, and makes the organization unable to respond rapidly to changing customer needs and competitive actions. The demand for resources exceeds supply, and strategy execution fails as more nimble competitors move in. Adjusting the Spans over Time Of course, organizations and job designs must change with shifting circumstances and strategies. To see how this plays out in practice, let’s look at how the job spans for a typical market-facing sales unit at IBM evolved as a result of the strategic choices made by successive CEOs. We pick up the story in 1981, when John Opel became IBM’s chief executive. IBM had been organized into stand-alone product groups that were run as profit centers. Reacting to threats from Japanese companies, Opel wanted to reposition the business as a low-cost competitor. For purposes of increasing cost efficiency, the business was reorganized on a functional basis. The span of control for operating-core units such as manufacturing was widened dramatically, and there was a corresponding reduction in the spans of control and accountability for market-facing sales units (illustrated in the top panel of the exhibit â€Å"Three Eras at IBM†). The company also enlarged its definition of â€Å"customer. † Rather than focus narrowly on professional IT managers in governments and large companies, IBM began marketing to small companies, resellers, and distributors. It created experimental independent business units and gave resources for experimentation without imposing any accountability for performance. By the end of Opel’s tenure, IBM was criticized for confusion about strategy and priorities. As one writer noted, â€Å"IBM settled into a feeling that it could be all things to all customers. However, the effects of these problems were masked by the dramatic and unrelenting growth of the computer industry during this period. In 1985, John Akers took over as CEO. The organization he inherited was configured to develop, manufacture, and market computing hardware in independent silos. Not only were products incompatible across categories, they failed to meet customer needs in a world that was moving quickly from hardware to software and customer solutions. To get closer to customers, Akers created a unified marketing and services group, organized by region. The mission of this new market-facing unit was to translate customer needs into integrated product solutions and coordinate internal resources to deliver the right products to customers. Business units and divisions were consolidated into six lines of business. The span of control for the market-facing sales units widened dramatically. The new marketing and services group was made accountable for profit, and, as a result, many new profit centers were created. Unfortunately, the existing accounting system was not capable of calculating profit at the branch level or for individual customers and product lines. Instead, a top-down planning system run by centralized staff groups set sales quotas for individual product categories. Customer sales representatives thus had few choices or trade-offs; their span of accountability was not wide enough to support the company’s new strategy. To make matters worse, the new profit centers made the company extremely complex and fragmented, a situation reflected in the unit’s relatively narrow spans of influence and support. As the strategy’s failure became evident and losses mounted, Akers considered breaking the corporation into separate entities. Lou Gerstner took charge in 1993. He restructured the business around specific industry groups, narrowing the spans of control and widening the spans of accountability for marketing and sales units. At the same time, he widened the spans of influence by formally pairing product specialists with global industry teams, which worked closely with customers. To widen the spans of support, the company reconfigured bonuses to give more weight to corporate results than to business-unit performance. Sam Palmisano took over as CEO in 2002 and reinforced the positive changes wrought by Gerstner. The new CEO’s strategy emphasized â€Å"on-demand† computing solutions delivered through seamless integration of hardware, software, and services. This involved adopting a team-based, â€Å"dedicated service relationship† configuration at the sales units. To ensure that all employees in such a complex organization would be willing to work across units to build customer loyalty, Palmisano worked to widen spans of support further. In a well-publicized initiative, he returned the company to its roots by reemphasizing the importance of IBM values such as dedication to client success, innovation, and trust and personal responsibility in all relationships. To increase trust within the company and heighten the perception of fairness—necessary actions before people will assume responsibility for helping others—Palmisano asked the board to allocate half of his 2003 bonus to other IBM executives who would be critical leaders of the new team-based strategy. A Precarious Balance As IBM illustrates, complex strategies for large firms usually require that all the spans of key jobs widen, indicating high levels of both demand for, and supply of, organizational resources. But the potential for problems is great in any organization where all four spans are wide and tightly aligned. A relatively small change in any one of them will disrupt the balance of supply and demand and tip the organization toward disequilibrium. In the short run, of course, the dedication and hard work of good people can often compensate for a misalignment. But the more dynamic your markets and the more demanding your customers, the more critical and difficult it becomes to ensure that all four spans of organization design are aligned to allow your business to reach its performance potential. Spans of Control at Wal-Mart The spans of control for a store manager and a merchandising manager at Wal-Mart are quite different. To ensure standardization in operations, Wal-Mart gives the store manager relatively little control. To promote the implementation of best practices, the company gives the merchandising manager a â€Å"wide† setting. Creating the Entrepreneurial Gap By holding managers accountable for more than they control, a company can encourage entrepreneurial behavior. Four Spans at a Software Company The settings for a marketing and sales manager show a relatively narrow span of control and a relatively wide span of accountability. The discrepancy indicates that the company wants the manager to be entrepreneurial. A reasonable span of influence ensures that he has a respectable level of collaboration with colleagues outside his unit to compensate for his low span of control. Company policies designed to provide a wide span of support ensure that his entrepreneurial initiatives will get a favorable response. The dotted line connecting the two spans that describe the resources available to the job (span of control and span of support) intersects with the line connecting the two spans that describe the job’s demand for resources (span of accountability and span of influence). This shows that the supply of, and demand for, resources that apply to this job are in rough balance; the job has been designed to enable the manager to succeed.